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THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS
IN CHINA

BY ,

IDA BELLE LEWIS

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRE-
MENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY,
IN THE FACLILTY OF PHILOSOPHY,
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

PUBLISHED BT

NEW YORK CITY

1919

l^(f

mceHANoe

3<f

2i'

THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS
IN CHINA

BY ,

IDA BELLE LEWIS

SUBMITIED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRE-
MENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY,
IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY,
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

PUBLISHED BY

iCearfjersi CoPege,! Columbia ?Hnibers(itp . Ct-^Ctj^jJr-Hir -^jL^
NEW YORK CITY
1919

IDA BELLE LEWIS

TO MY
FATHER AND MOTHER

45220G

PREFACE

This study of The Education of Girls in China has been made
possible only by the cooperation of many friends, Chinese and
American, in this country and in China. All have given un-
sparingly of their time and advice, and to each one the writer
acknowledges her indebtedness.

Especially is gratitude due to Mr. T. H. Fu, the Minister of
Education of China, and to Mr. T. T. Wang and Mr. U. Y. Yen
of the Educational Mission at Washington for courteous supply
of rare documents and generous answers to all requests for in-
formation; to Mr. E. W. Wallace, Miss Mary Louise Hamilton,
Miss Jennie Baird Bridenbaugh, Miss Lydia Trimble and Miss
Elizabeth Farries for gathering questionnaires from several cen-
ters in China; to Dr. I. T. Headland and Professor S. C. Kiang
for permitting the use of unpublished manuscript; to Mr. W.
T. Tao and Mr. T. H. Cheng for much translation and many sug-
gestions in gathering material; to Bishop W. S. Lewis, of China,
Dr. L L. Kandel, and the Misses Clara and Laura Chassell for
criticism and reading of manuscript. To Professor 0. D. Strayer,
Professor Paul Monroe, Dr. T. H. P. Sailer and Professor Willy-
stone Goodsell, of Teachers College, the writer is indebted for
guidance and inspiration throughout the work.

L B. L.

CONTENTS

Intkoduction 1

PART I

I. The Traditional Education of Women 7

The Standards for the Education of Women I'pheld in the Classics:

Moral, Vocational, Cultural Standards 7

The Influence of These Standards on Women in History 14

The Influence of the Standards on Women at the Present Time ... 17

II. The Modern Movement in Education 18

Mission Schools 18

Private Schools 25

Government Schools 28

Relationship between Mission, Private, and Government Schools 35

III. The Present Situation 37

The Rapid Rise of Girls' Schools 37

Elimination in the Schools as a Whole 38

Geographical Distribution of Educational Institutions 39

Number of Girls in School Compared with the Total Number of

Girls of School Age 40

PART 11

I. The Scope of the Investigation 42

The Method of Research 42

The Returns 43

II. The Social Environment and Aspirations of the Chinese

Schoolgirl 45

Social Status 45

Economic Status 48

Home Relationships 49

Ambitions 54

III. The Classification of Pupils 55

Age Distribution 55

Amount of Under-Age, Normal-Age, and Over-Age 60

IV. The Subjects in the Curriculum C7

The Subjects Reported by the Girls of Each Grade 67

An Analysis of the Curriculum in the Light of the Investigation ... 80

The Results of the Investigation 82

V. Conclusion 84

Summary of Results 84

Recommendations 85

Bibliography 90

THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS IN CHINA

INTRODUCTION

Education in China has for many centuries been a basic factor
in nation and society. Before 1901-03/ under the examination
system, education in the classics was the route by which the poor-
est lad in the most remote village might become the highest
official in the realm. To win a degree, and thus bring honor to
parents and village, was the epitome of filial piety and social
service. The lettered man, by sheer virtue of his knowledge, has
always received from the entire population a deep, almost rev-
erent respect. Education consisted mainly of a mastery of the
classics.^ Since the discovery of printing,' each succeeding gen-
eration in China has added to its literature of written tradition,
history, poetry and philosophy. The people thus cr^^staUized
the ideals which they wrought out through experience. This
literature, especially the Five Classics and the Four Books, has
had a tremendous influence in the life of the country. Mem-
orized and expounded, the classics were the only text-books of the
schools. Scholars deepened their thought by meditation upon the
words of the sages. Morality was measured by that of the an-
cients. From the city on the coast to the tiny village near the
headwaters of the Yangtze, political, family and individual life
was consciously tested bj' the principles of the Sacred Books of
the Middle Kingdom. Ethical relationship and right conduct is
the theme of the classics, and was the chief subject of thought and
discussion before the modern era in education.

The new education, which introduced science, modern history,
and, in mission schools, the Bible, from the West over seventy-
five years ago,^ has been a powerful force in recent social and
political change. Throughout the entire nation its effects are
evident in bringing about progressive movements.

' Kuo, P. \V., The Chinese System of Public Education, "p. 78.
2 Ihid., pp. .34-35.

' Fu Hsi (2852 b. c.) the traditional inventor of Chinese writing and founder
of Chinese history. See Pott, F. L., Sketch of Chinese History, p. 10.
* Ihid., p. 4.

2 The Education of Girls in China

As a result of these conflicting ideals of education, in every
Chinese community there are three definite social groups: the
conservative, still dominated by the ancient educational tradi-
tions; the progressive, dominated by the ideals of modern educa-
tion; and the changing, those who are moving from the old to
the new.

The conservative group includes both the illiterate men and
women and the scholar of the ancient classics. The scholars
wield great influence in their own communities. They often
come into relationship with the District Magistrate, which makes
them men of mark among their fellows. They are constantly
called upon to assist in the settlement of disputes. At weddings
and funerals, they are always in places of honor, due to their
literary degrees.^ Their ideals and social attitudes have been
determined by the standards set forth in the ancient Hterature of
China. Because they beheve the golden age of China to have
been in ancient times and that the present and the future of the
nation depend upon copying closely the deeds of the ancients,
although new social customs are being rapidly introduced about
them, these men hold tenaciously to the past and conscientiously
do their best to block change.

At the other extreme of the social scale, and yet exerting a tre-
mendous influence on public opinion, are the illiterate artisans
and farmers. These people cannot read. Quotations from the
classics repeated to them by the village literati and bits of homely
philosophy handed down by word of mouth from generation to
generation are the bases for their intellectual and social life.
Their travel is bounded by the neighboring villages. The wel-
fare of China as a nation holds little meaning for them. They
neither know nor care about pohtics beyond those of their own
village.^ Limited to this narrow horizon, each man is bound by
a fierce economic pressure which forces him to work hard at his
trade or on his farm from early dawn until dark. "Contrary to

^ Smith, A. H., Village Life in China, pp. 132-133.

2Cf. Bashford, J. W., China, pp. 307-308. "The people have not been
greatly interested in the national government . . . (because) . . .
the general government did not confer any widespread and vital benefit upon
the people." However, it may be that under the Republic the farmers might
have known or heard of the election of representatives and the like. (Mr.
T. H. Cheng.)

Introduction 3

the theory of certain sociologists, this intensified struggle for
life has no perceptible effect in promoting economic or social
improvement. It makes for exertion and strain but not for
progress, because the prime means of progress are inventions and
discoveries, and it is just these that bondslaves to poverty,
under the stress of the struggle to keep alive, are not able to
bring forth. "^ "It will be at best a couple of lifetimes before
the plane of existence of the common people will at all approxi-
mate that of the common people of America."^ Starvation,
debt, and beggary' are the alternatives to their deadening toil.
Because of these circumstances the new ideas of progress can
meet with little response from the great mass of the Chinese
populace.

Another powerful conservative factor in society is illiterate
womanhood. Confined to one village, unable to read, kept sub-
servient until youth is over, superstitious, and fearful of every-
thing new, the women of most households, in educated circles as
well as among the middle and lower classes, are bound to the
traditions of the locality. Mothers, to whom every child owes
implicit obedience, refuse to allow their sons to attend progressive
schools. If a child is sick, and the father calls a western trained
physician who administers scientific medicine, the mother adds a
dose of concoction guaranteed by the village medicine man in
order to make rapid recovery more certain. Wives use their
whole repertoire of schemes in order to thwart any project of their
husbands which will involve experiment. These women are not
to be blamed, for they are victims of a social system. But they
hang like millstones upon the necks of their families. Until
womankind be lifted up, China must needs be heavily weighted
in her struggle for progress.

Opposed in thought and practice to the conservative element
in Chinese society is an alert, progressive social group. The
remarkable changes recently brought about in every phase of
Chinese life have been the result of their work. Fearless, often
radical, sometimes uncompromising, they have dared break the
bonds of tradition, have questioned and denied the supremacy of

1 Ross, E. A., The Changing Chinese, p. 92.
' Ibid., p. 69.

^ There are few beggars in a country region where there is no famine. Busi-
ness failures, and the like, go to the city to beg.

4 The Education of Girls in China

the past over the present. They have even paid the price of
unfiUal conduct, when it has been necessary to bring about change.
They have been educated in modern Chinese, Japanese, Ameri-
can, and European schools. They have travelled extensively
and have brought home a changed conception of nation and so-
ciety. In their open struggle towards democracy, they are push-
ing universal education, political freedom, economic progress and
social reform. The men who belong to this group are the officials
(often lesser officials because they are young men), the business
men, the physicians, and the educators of China to-day. "A
recent census of Chinese students in Peking who are returned
students from Europe, America, and Japan shows that there are
nearly 950 accounted for in that metropolis and that of these
806 are engaged in government service. They constitute 23.2
per cent of the total number of departmental officers, and in
certain departments, such as the Department of Agriculture
where special training is particularly valued, they number nearly
half the total roll of employees. Of the returned students now in
Peking, 522 are from Japan, 154 are from America, 99 are from
Great Britain, 52 are from France, 47 are from Germany, 38 are
from Belgium, 9 are from Austria-Hungary, 7 are from Russia,
and 1 is from Spain. As to distribution in various departments,
it is estimated that in the Ministry of War, 34.1 per cent of the
total number of officials are returned students; in the Ministry
of Education, 28,8 per cent; in the Forestry Bureau, 32.2 per
cent; in the Ministry of Commerce, 48.6 per cent; in the
National Supreme Court, 40 per cent; in the Ministry of
Communications, 46.7 per cent. These men are leaders of
New China."!

Women leaders have also a claim in the progress of China.
During the Revolution equal suffrage was urged with much vigor
and earnestness upon the new republic. Women are prominent
in the Red Cross units of Shanghai and Tientsin, and doubtless of
other cities. Many of the Chinese private schools are managed
entirely by women. Contemporaneous hterature is enriched by
women's magazines, some of which are edited by women. Chi-
nese women physicians stand out prominentlj' in the medical
world, and have made large contributions to the well being of

1 Chinese Students' Monthly, Vol. XIII, No. 4, p. 193 (February, 1918).

Introduction 5

North, Central, East and South China. ^ Women in institutions
of learning in every province of China and in many colleges of
America will carry on the movement which is bringing a new era
for the women of their nation.

Between the conservative and progressive groups is a great
proportion of the population. Touched by the new life and
thought of the outside world, they are still deeply imbued with
the spirit of Old China. They read the modern newspaper, but
think it less important than the study of Chinese history. They
allow their children to attend modern schools, but insist on home
memorization of the classics; they permit sons to study in foreign
lands, but arrange their betrothal with little or no regard for their
wishes. Members of this group represent all stages of change
between the old and the new; keen to recognize advantages and
disadvantages in both the old and the new, they try to combine
the best in both, to suit their own individual and family needs.

Advancement of the work, now done relatively unconsciously
by the individuals of the changing group, is the task which con-
fronts the modern educator of China. It is a task which must be
accomphshed consciously and with definite purposes. Both the
old and the new civilizations contribute elements which are
necessary to present educational effectiveness, but which are now
to a great extent selected by tradition. The discovery and choice
of content and methods of education which vary with the needs
of the conservative, progressive and changing groups of society
is an outstanding problem of education in China to-day. Within
this problem, the education of boys and the education of girls
are differentiated sharply in administration and to some extent
in content. The purpose of this study is the survey of specific
aspects of the problem that have to do with the nature of educa-
tion offered to girls in China, the relation of the present educa-
tional program to the life of the nation, together with the general
lines of change and experiment which will make this program
more efficient.

' Dr. Hu King An, graduate of Philadelphia (1894), who has worked in
South China; Dr. Yamei Kin, who for several years had charge of a govern-
ment hospital in Tientsin; Dr. Mary Stone, Michigan (1896), who treated
19,649 patients in her hospital in Kiukiang in 1912; Dr. Ida Kahn, Michigan
(1896), who has served with great success in her hospital in Nanchang, and
later in the government hospital in Tientsin.

PART I

CHAPTER I
THE TRADITIONAL EDUCATION OF WOMEN

In the classics the great sages incorporated their ideals for the
education of women, and each succeeding generation has ac-
cepted their doctrines in this, as in other fields. The Four Books
for Girls, Nu Chieh, Nei Hsun, Nu Lun Yu, and the Nu Fan
Chieh Lu, written by women, simplified and explained the doc-
trines of the classics concerning their sex, and have been used as
text-books for the education of girls throughout succeeding gen-
erations. Thus the classics and these four books set for the
women of China the standards of education which were un-
questioned until the middle of the last century, and which even
to-day dominate the thought and customs of women in the
conservative classes.

The standards of moral education were filial piety and obedi-
ence to the husband, submission to the desires of brothers and
sisters-in-law, and humility of spirit. Of these, the duty of
filial piety was paramount. It was the root from which all
Chinese society developed. Both sexes alike shared the obliga-
tion. Confucius made no distinction between men and women
when he said, "Filial piety and fraternal submission, are they
not the root of all benevolent actions?"^ In her enumeration of
woman's virtues, Jen Hsiao names filial piety as the first,' and
claims that women as well as men may obtain it to a high degree.
"Someone says, 'Such is the filial piety of holy men, women can-
not attain to it.' This is not true. Filial piety and brotherly
love are heaven given dispositions. How can there be a dis-
tinction between male and female?"' Ceremonials which en-
sure reverent service at rising and at meals, loving obedience in
every detail of conduct, and filial anxiety for the constant wel-
fare and happiness of parents are outlined in detail in the Li

' Confucius, Analects, Book I, Chap. II. Translated by J. Legge.
2 Jen Hsiao, Nei Hsun, Chap. I. Translated by I. T. Headland.
» lUd., Chap. XII.

2 7

8 The Education of Girls in China

Ki,^ one cf the greatest of the classics. To incorporate such
fihal conduct into daily life was the most important duty of
Chinese women.

The relation of husband and wife is based upon a fundamental
philosophy of the Chinese people. "Great righteousness is
shown in that man and woman occupy their correct places; the
relative positions of Heaven and Earth, "^ said the Book of
Changes. Lady Tsao, speaking from the standpoint of a woman,
agrees that "The Yin and the Yang, like the male and the fe-
male, are very different principles. The virtue of the Yang is
firmness, the virtue of the Yin flexibility."^ "If the husband is
unworthy he cannot govern his wife. If the husband cannot
govern his wife, the dignity of the household will be deficient.
If the wife does not serve her husband, the rules of propriety
will be destroyed."*

The relation of superior and inferior, however, does no't in-
timate that the position of woman is to be despised, nor does it
follow that marriage is lightly esteemed.^ Mencius recognized
marriage as "the greatest of human relationships."^ Moreover,
the wife was considered responsible for the conduct of her hus-
band. Sung Jo Chao has thus set forth clearly her urgent duty,
"If she finds him in error, she should earnestly reprove him."^
Wang Chieh Fu stated that the success of certain emperors who
became prosperous was due to the fact that they all had "virtu-
ous and intelligent inside helpers."^ The wife is not permitted,
however, to marry again. "Once mated with her husband, all
her life she will not change (her feeling of dut}" to him) and hence
when the husband dies, she will not marry again. "^ "There is
no second marriage ceremony for a wife."^" Of course, this same

1 Li Ki, Book X. Translated by J. Legge.

2 Book of Changes, XXXVII, Kia Zan Heragram King Wan's Explanation.
Treatise on Than. Translated by J. Legge.

3 Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. III. Translated by I. T. Headland.

* Ibid., Chap. II.

5 See Li Ki, Book JX, Sec. Ill: 2.

* Mencius, Book V, Part I, Chap. II. Translated by J. Legge.

' Sung Jo Chao, Nu Lun Yu, Chap. VII. Translated by I. T. Headland.
« Wang Chieh Fu, Nu Fan Chieh Lu, Chap. I. Translated by I. T. Head-
land.

9 Li Ki, Book IX, Sec. Ill : 7.
1" Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. V.

The Traditional Education of Women 9

standard did not apply to the husband. ''If a wife dies the
husband may marry again,"' says Lady Tsao, interpreting both
the classics and general usage.^ Nor was possession of con-
cubines to be considered immoral. The classics recognize this
system in many places.^ The duty of each wife and concubine
under this regime was to have love for each other, with no jealous
feeling.

On the other hand, when the superiority of the husband, the
duty of obedience on the part of the wife, and dignity of marriage
were recognized by both husband and wife, happiness was set
forth as the result, and, indeed, was often achieved. There are
several love songs of rare sweetness and of high idealism in the
classic book of Odes.* A couplet from one of these poems pic-
tures the beautiful home life:

Loving union with wife and children
Is like music with lutes. ^

The fact that the wife was given the rank of the husband in the
marriage ceremony brought her the duty of obedience to the
elder brothers and their wives, but gave her the privilege of
governing those who were younger.® Humanly speaking, this
presented grave dangers for domestic peace; hence Lady Tsao
advised: "Now to win the hearts of your younger brothers and
sisters there is nothing better than humility and obedience.
. . . If you understand these two things, you can agree
exactly with them."^

The motive for the entire code of propriety was to be virtue,
or humility of spirit. Mencius expressed the ideal by saying,
"To look upon compliance as their correct course is the rule of
women. "^ Lady Tsao writes: "She should be humble, yielding,
modest and respectful. First others, then herself. When she

» Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. V. Translated by I. T. Headland.

2 Cf. Mencius, Book VII, Chap. VI.

3 Book of Odes {She King), Part I, Book V:5. Translated by J. Legge.

Li Ki, Book X, Sec. II: 26, 37. Translated by J. Legge.
* Cf. Book of Odes {She King), Part II, Book VII, Ode IV. Ibid., Part I,
Book I, Ode I.

s Ibid., Part II, Book I, Ode IV.
«Li A'l, BookX, Sec. 1:18.
' Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. VII.
8 Mencius, Book III, Part II, Chap. II.

10 The Education of Girls in China

does good, she ought not to talk about it; when she does wrong,
she ought not to excuse herself. Even if shame or disgrace are
put upon her, she should be patient. She should be as careful at
all times as if she were afraid."^ And yet such conduct was found
by experience to bring more than its own reward, for, says Lady
Tsao, "I have never heard of a woman who possessed these
. . . virtues who had occasion to grieve because she was un-
known, or who fell into disfavor."- Jen Hsiao emphasized the
fact that " virtue comes not from without. Its source is within."'
"Even while alone you cannot afford to be careless of a single
thought. You say, 'No one sees me.' Can you hide it from
heaven? You say, 'No one knows it.' Do you deceive your
own heart?"^

In spite of their inferior station in society, it was true in China,
as in all ancient civilizations, that while women were illiterate
they were not uneducated. The responsibilities of the home were
heavy and called for many kinds of skill. Vocational standards
were set high and the instruction which she received fitted the
girl for such duties as were thought properly hers.

In common with all people, the Chinese believed the primary-
sphere of woman to be in her home. Here she was supreme. In
fact, the Li Ki says, "The men should not speak of what belongs
to the inside of the house," at the same time adding, "nor the
woman of what belongs to the outside,"^

Lady Tsao realized the weight of the burden of home work,
and urged the wife to "retire late and rise early. Even though
it takes her till midnight to do it, she should do what she has to do
regardless of the difficulty of the undertaking. She should work
until it is completed and be able to do it neatly."®

Both Mencius^ and the Li Ki^ emphasize the importance of
spinning as an essential part of women's work. The Nu Lun
Yv? outline in detail her duty as manufacturer of cloth fabrics.

1 Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. I. Translated by I. T. Headland.

2 Ibid.

' Jen Hsiao, Nei Hsun, Chap. I. Translated by I. T. Headland.

< Ibid., Chap. VII.

5 Li Ki, Part XII, Book X, Sec. I. Translated by J. Legge.

• Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. I.

7 Mencius, Book III, Chap. Ill, Part II. (See Book IV)
^LiKi, BookX, Sec. 11:36.

* Sung Jo Chao, Nu Lun Yu, Chap. II.

The Traditional Education of Women 11

To woman was also given the task of making and preparing food
for her family. The Li Ki mentions the meats, soups, vege-
tables, delicacies and fruits to be used in formal dinners and sac-
rifices. It also gives recipes for eight delicacies for the aged,
involving painstaking and skillful preparation of materials with
the crudest of equipment.^

Although minute ceremonials which typify and embody the
duty of children to parents are described in the classics, little is
said regarding the duty of parents to children. Filial piety ex-
alts the mother to a place as queen among her children. In the
books by women, however, there is some mention of the duties of a
mother. "Woman's . . . instruction ... is confined
to her children, "2 writes Jen Hsiao. " The rule of her instruction
is to guide them with virtue and with moral rectitude, to educate
them with modesty and humihty, to lead them with diligence
and economy; to do it with tenderness and love; to watch over
them with sternness and faithfulness, thus will she establish
their bodies and develop their virtue."^ "As stately trees are
stiff and the branches are not contiguous, as the abyss is clear and
the fish do not hide in it, or as the sweet gourd clings to the droop-
ing trees and as many grasses grow in the deep, moist valley, so
children will be obedient to a tender and benevolent mother.
This is a certain rule. . . . There are those who substitute
indulgence for tenderness, bhnd love for virtue. This will spoil
their children. That which does not swerve from what is proper,
but dihgently instructs the child is said to be tenderness,"*

Perhaps the duty that lifted women higher than any other was
the duty of assisting her husband at the sacrifices.^

Jen Hsiao says: "The husband and wife should together
offer sacrifices. . . . The empress takes the lead in offering
sacrifices to the spirits. She is the foundation of the empire.
She prepares cleanly for the autumn and winter sacrifices, assists
the emperor in the offering. . . . She stands in the temple

» U Ki, Book X, Sec. II: 6. Translated by J. Legge.

* Mr. T. H. Cheng has reported the existence of dame schools in villages in
the province of Chekiang. They taught reading and writing and some
arithmetic.

s Jen Hsiao, Nei Hsun, Chap. XVI. Translated by I. T. Headland.

* Ibid., Chap. XVIII.

» Cf. Book of Odes, Part I, Book II, Ode II, Part I, Book II, Ode IV.

12 The Education of Girls in China

early and late without thinking of weariness."^ The privilege of
sacrifice at the ancestral tablets was a foregleam of the perma-
nent honor of wife and mother. After death her spirit was wor-
shipped by her descendants.^

The standards of cultural education for Chinese women were
also well defined. Music and correct conversation were enjoined,
and by women themselves, a need for knowledge of books was
recognized. The Odes speak of a "beautiful, virtuous lady"
who "can respond to you in songs. "^ Every boy in China who
has studied a year in school has learned these lines from his San
Tze Ching:*

Tsae Wan Ke could play upon stringed instruments
Seay Tao Wan likewise could sing and chant.
These two though girls were intelligent and well informed
You, then, my lads, should surely rouse to diligence!^

In conversation rules were given that "females should not be
forward and garrulous, but observe strictly what is correct,
whether in suggesting advice to her husband, in remonstrating
with him, or in teaching her children; in maintaining etiquette,
humbly imparting her experience or in averting misfortune."^
The Nu Chieh sets this standard: "Choose your words, then
speak. Of course, you will speak no bad words. Let your words
be in season, then you will not bore others. This may be said
to be the rule for women's conversation."''

The expressed desire for a broader education in books shows
very plainly that in spite of their modest compliance with the
duties placed upon them by society at least some women wished

1 Jen Hsiao, Nei Hsun, Chap. XV. Cf. W. Goodsell, The Family, p. 80.
This was a marked contrast to the place of woman in the Greek family where
sacrifice was performed only by the father.

2 Cf. Book of Odes {She King), Part IV, Book I, Ode IV. Translated by
J. Legge. Ihid., Ode VII.

3 lUd., Part I, Book XII, Ode IV.

* SanTzeChing: " An epitome of all knowledge " which " every Chinese who
has learned to read knows by heart." P. W. Kuo, The Chinese System of
Public Education, p. 53.

5 San Tze King, line 158. Translated in the Chinese Repository, Vol. IV,
p. 110.

* Lu Chow, Nil Heo, preface. Translated in the Chinese Repository, Vol.
IX, p. 544.

7 Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. IV. Translated by I. T. Headland.

The Traditional Education of Women 13

for a higher and more wide-reaching standard for their education.
"Examine now the superior men: They simply know the wife
ought to be governed and the dignity of the household preserved.
They, therefore, seek such books as will instruct the boys. It is
not that the girls do not know that they ought to serve their
husbands and that the rules of propriety ought to be preserved;
but the boys have been instructed and the girls have not. Is
not that placing too low an estimate on the relationship of the
sexes? According to the ancient rules, when boys were eight
years old, they began to read books and at fifteen they began to
study. Ought not girls to do likewise?"^ " 'A man's virtue is
his ability.' This saying is nearly true. 'A woman's lack of
ability is her virtue.' These words are false. Probably they
did not know that the basis of ability and virtue is intimately
related to the discussion of good and evil. Virtue promotes
ability and abihty completes virtue. . . . The superior
man should instruct his sons, should he not also instruct his
daughter?"^

The standards of conduct toward members of the family, of
skill in home-keeping and garment making or cutting, in music, *
conversation, and literature, were directly taught in the home by
educated parents and governesses, with especial attention before
marriage.^ Lady Tsao modestly gives her father gratitude for
instruction, "Ignorant and stupid my mind was never quick of
perception, though I had the good fortune to receive the special
favor of my father."** Jen Hsiao, in the preface to the Nei
Hsun, also bears witness to this custom, " In my youth, I received
the instruction of my parents, having studied poetry and class-
ical books, while at the same time I attended carefully my duties
as a woman." Wang Chieh Fu, in the preface of her Nu Fan
Chieh Lu, "In youth she was well versed in literature." In ad-
dition, "Her governess taught her the arts of pleasing speech
and manners, to be docile and obedient."^

The classics portray the custom of tutelage just before marriage :

1 Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, Chap. IV. Translated by I. T. Headland.

2 Wang Chieh Fu, Nu Fan Chieh Lu, Chap. X. Translated by I. T. Head-
land.

» Cf. Goodsell, The Family, p. 44.

* Lady Tsao, Nu Chieh, preface.

* Li Ki, Book X, Sec. II: 36. Translated by J. Legge.

14 The Education of Girls in China

"Anciently for three months before the marriage of a young lady
. . . she was taught the virtue, the speech, the carriage
and the work of a wife. When the teaching was accomplished,
she offered a sacrifice (to the ancestor) using fish for the victim
and soups made of duck-weed and pond-weed. So was she
trained to the obedience of a wife."^ "At the marriage of a
young woman, her mother admonishes her, accompanying her to
the door on her leaving and cautioning her. . . . "^

The foregoing ideal of education for women is probably an im-
portant reason why the great majority of Chinese women re-
mained in obscurity. Su Tung Pao, in The Encyclopedia says:
"Even with superior ability and extraordinary character they
(women) were not known in the world. Women who have in-
tellectual, executive qualities cannot utilize these gifts, and those
with ability in the use of esthetic words are not known to others.
Then there are many who are good, Idnd-hearted and virtuous
and yet are unrewarded."^ Professor S. L. Kiang says: "The
very fortunate learned something of (books). The middle class
girls learned to read only the San Tzu Ching (the Three Char-
acter Classics) , the Pai Chia Hsin (Hundred Family Names) and
the Nu Sze Hsu (Four Classics for Girls) .^ In the low classes,
comprising 70 per cent or more of all the women in China, they
were not even taught to read their own family names. . . .
It is not to be wondered at, then, that since the Sung time (420
A.D.), there has been a proverb, believed implicitly to be as true
as the golden rule, 'A woman without ability is normal.' "^

However, to assume that women had no part in public life in
China would be untrue. Even in Chinese history where there
was no avowed purpose to preserve adequately the contributions
of womankind, the records abound with references to great women
and their deeds. There have been empress dowagers, who, ris-
ing from comparative obscurity, have seized the power of the
kingdom and have ruled people, officials and palace with severe

1 Li Ki, Book XLI: 10. Translated by J. Legge.

2 Mencius, Part II, Book III, Chap. II. Translated by J. Legge.

= The Encyclopedia, Vol. XXI, p. 18-19. Translated from the original
with the aid of Mr. T. H. Cheng.

* Cf. p. 7.

* Kiang, S. C, Woman and Education in China.

The Traditional Education of Women 15

efficiency.^ Other women, consorts of the emperors, have ab-
sorbed the attention of their masters and have caused the down-
fall of dynasties.' Still others have aided their husbands in
ruling, and have wisely advised in matters of state. ^

In addition to historical references, many books have been
written with the specific aim of preserving for posterity the mem-
ory of wonderful women. The first books were written by Lu
Hsiang^ (approximately 80 B.C.). The qualities for which women
were celebrated are not in every case those which are admired by
the Occident, for they emphasize social rather than political abil-
ities. The Biographies of Eminent Women {Lieh Nu Chuan)
include 19 examples of women who were far-sighted and benev-
olent; 19 who were celebrated because of chastity; 18 who re-
fused to marry after widowed whether by the death of husband
or betrothed; 18 who were celebrated for far-sightedness and
widowhood; 18 who should be considered as warnings for girls;
16 who were great mothers; and 16 who were celebrated for their
docility and constancy.'^ Later (684 a.d.) Wang Chieh Fu in-
cluded in her Short Records of Exemplary Women (Nu Fan Chieh
Lu) eighty-six short biographies of those who were great. Her
classification followed closely that of Lu Hsiang, adding 15 ex-
amples of virtuous empresses, and 14 who were noted for filial
piety. In the great encyclopedia Ku Chin T'u Shu Chi Ch'eng,
published in 1726, which was designed by the Emperor K'ang
Hsi, "to provide a comprehensive survey of all that was best
in the literature of the past, dealing with every branch of
knowledge,"^ 376 volumes are devoted to the works and lives of
women. The classification here is still broader, and devotes

1 Lu Chieh (194 b.c), Pott, F. L. H., Sketch of Chinese History, p. 38;
Empress Wu (684 a.d.), Pott, F. L. H., loc. cit., p. 64; J. Bashford, China,
p. 588; Empress Tze Hsi (1861-1908 a.d.), Bashford, J. W., loc. cit., pp. 312 ff.;
Bland and Blackhouse, China under the Empress Dowager.

2 Moh Hsi (1818 b.c). Pott, F. L. H., Sketch of Chinese History, p. 16; Ta
Chi (1154 B.C.), ibid., p. 20, Pao Ssu(781 B.C.), ibid., p. 25.

3 Empress Kiang Hou (806 B.C.), Bashford, J. W., loc. cit., p. 570; Em-
press, wife of T'ai Tsung (620 a.d.), ibid , pp. 585-6; Lady Ma (1370 a.d.),
ibid., p. 598.

' Giles, H. A., History of Chinese Literature, p. 92.

' Compiled from the Index of Lieh Nu Chuan and translated by T. H.
Cheng.

* Giles, L., Alphabetical Index to the Chinese Encyclopedia, Introduction, p. 6.

16 The Education of Girls in China

five volumes to those who became generals and military leaders,
ten to those celebrated for their beauty, and one to those who
were skillful in embroidery, painting and music. ^

Not only were books written about women, but women them-
selves have contributed to the upbuilding of Chinese literature.
Paradoxical though it may seem, the Book of Odes (She King)
includes, as an integral part of the nation's most sacred litera-
ture, at least ten poems written by women. Commentators^
agree that in Part I, Book III, Odes II, III, IV, and V were written
by Chwang Keang and, in the same book. Ode XIV was written
by a d6;Ughter of the house of Wei who longed to revisit her home.
Similarly, Odes I and X, in Book IV, Odes V and VII, in Book V,
were written by Chinese ladies of the Inner Courts. In addition
to those in the classics, Chinese literature abounds in poems
written by women. Among these may be mentioned Lady P'an,
whbse "Autumn Fan"^ is known by all students of Chinese lit-
erature. China's history is indebted to a woman. Lady Tsao
(50-112 A.D.),'* for its record of the Later Han Dynasty. She
was also the author of Instruction for Women (Nu Chieh).
Later, Sung Jo Chao^ (785-805 a.d.) compiled the Analects for
Women (Nu Lun Yu). Later (1404 a.d.) Jen Hsiao^ wrote her
Teaching of the Inner Courts (Nei Hsun). Wang Chieh Fu^
(970-1127 A.D.) selected from the examples of ancient women
those who should be imitated by the girls of her generation, in
her Short Records of Exemplary Women (Nu Fan Chieh Lu).
These four books comprise "The Four Classics for Girls." The
Ku Kwo Wen Chi,^ a group of twenty-six volumes, is perhaps the
most pretentious work by women. It is a collection of Chinese
literary productions which were written by three hundred and
seventy-three women. Still other writings are scattered through
history, letters, memorials, and the miscellaneous books of the
country. They have become an integral part of the great Chi-

1 Giles, L., Alphabetical Index to the Chinese Encyclopedia, Introduction, p. 6.

2 Cf. Notes, Book of Odes (She King); also The Little Preface.
^ Cf. Giles, H. A., History of Chinese Literature, p. 101.

* Faber, E., The Famous Women of China, p. 46.
s Ibid., p. 13.

« Ibid., p. 12.

''Ibid., p. 13; Williams, S. W., History of China, p. 39; Chinese Repository,
Vol. IV, p. 106.

* Faber, E., The Famous Women of China, p. 11.

The Traditional Education of Women: 17

nese literature and are not separated because they are the product
of the work of women.

The standards of woman's conduct set in the classics cannot be
accepted as a literal picture of actual womanhood either in an-
cient or in modern times. Miss Sophia H. Chen, of Vassar Col-
lege, says: "There has always been a minority who received edu-
cation. In certain families the tradition of well educated women
is kept up: One would learn the art of painting, another that of
penmanship, still another the art of poetry!'*^ To-day in almost
every home of refinement a private school is held for the sons of
the family. Here the daughters are often permitted to learn the
classics with their brothers, memorizing the same works under the
same teachers. Furthermore, native ability and power of per-
sonality have often triumphed over cramping tradition. Never-
theless, that the teachings of the classics have moulded social
attitudes toward women is undeniable. To-day, in conservative
Chinese homes, the women are enjoined to be filial daughters,
obedient wives and submissive sisters. The mother-in-law is
the guardian and absolute ruler, by whom punishment to unruly
daughters-in-law is meted out. The husbands, while often
kindly toward, and sometimes fearful of the displeasure of their
wives, are at liberty to bring home concubines.^ Parents still
decide whether or not a daughter may be educated, almost in-
variably preferring the son in education. They arrange for her
marriage^ with little regard for her wishes. In many homes the
daughter has not been outside the courtyard of her father's
house, and rarely, save in the progressive centers, is a girl per-
mitted alone upon the streets. The home is considered the only^
proper sphere for women, and the tasks of the home their only
proper work. In many interior places the women and girls
spin and weave for the family all the clothing from hats to shoes.
Household management and care of children according to tradi-
tional rules, a long life of drudgery with a crown of honor and
power in old age, is the lot of most women in China. The tra-
ditional ideals of education, held bj' the conservative classes,
are an integral part of the situation to-day. Upon the founda-
tion laid centuries ago will the new education for women be built.

1 Personal letter to the writer, February 19, 1918.

^ There is a growing movement among the progressive group, both men
and women, to make this custom unlawful.
^ This applies equally to sons.

CHAPTER II

THE MODERN MOVEMENT IN WOMEN'S EDUCATION

Mission Schools

In 1842 the cities of Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and
Shanghai were opened to foreign trade as treaty ports. ^ Thus it
was made possible for missionaries to estabHsh schools in the
coast cities of Central and Southern China. The ignorance and
superstitution of the women deeply impressed these early pio-
neers. Foot binding and killing of infant girls were prevalent.
The people were eager for the education of sons, but the daughters
of the common people were thought scarcely worthy of such
attention. However, in the face of apathy^ and even of opposition,
schools for girls were opened, first by the Protestant missionaries,
followed soon after by the Cathohc missionaries. Miss Aldersey,
a member of the Church of England, was the pioneer of women's
education. At Ningpo in 1844 she opened the first school for
Chinese girls, and supported it from her own income.^ In 1847^
the Presbyterian Mission (which had founded its station in 1845*)
started in this city another girls' school with two pupils. The
movement quickly spread to the other cities, and representatives
opened schools: Mrs. Bridgeman in Shanghai under the Amer-
ican Board in 1849;^ Mrs. Maclay in Foochow under the Meth-

1 See Pott, F. L. H., Sketch of Chinese History, pp. 138-139.

2 "A lady connected with the Chinese Mission" writes in 1855, "in
the girls' day school I found fourteen scholars. . . . The old lady (teacher)
reminded me that girls in the country were very stupid and dull; but that they
would learn by and by. She told me they were unwilling to attend without
receiving some cash, because they thought it necessary to do some work every
day to earn rice. So I told her . . . that each pupil was to have 20 cash
(or 1\ cents) per day. 'Oh, then,' she rephed, 'they will be eager to study.' "
The Spirit of Missions, July, 1855, p. 319.

3 See Burton, M., Education of Women in China, p. 35; Dean, The China
Mission, p. 141; Presbyterian Mission Report, 1858, p. 87.

* Report, Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1847, p. 32.
« Ibid., 1845, p. 22.

• Report, American Board of Foreign Com., 1849, p. 165.

The Modern Movement in Woinen's Education 19

odist Mission in 1851 ;i the Episcopal Mission in Shanghai in
1852 ;2 the American Board in Foochow in 1853 ;3 the Presbyterian
Board in Canton in 1853;* the American Board in Canton in
1854;'^ the Presbyterian Board in Shanghai in 1857 ;« the Baptist
Board at Ningpo in 1858;^ the Wesleyan Church at Canton, »
and the Reformed Church at Amoy^ in 1860.

In 1858 a treaty with the American, EngHsh, and French
governments gave to Protestant and Cathohc missionaries official
permission to propagate their faiths in any part of the country-^"
This opened the whole of China to mission work. For six years
pubhc opinion thwarted all efforts towards girls' schools in North
China,!-^ but finally, in 1864, seven girls in Tientsin, and five
girls in Peking entered American Board schools.'^ Un 1872,
thirteen girls entered the Presbyterian Mission at Chefoo.^^* The
pioneer school of Central China was founded in Kiukjang by the
Methodist Mission in 1873. ) Gradually at first and then in rapid
succession girls' schools under the missions have been opened,
until to-day they are found in many cities. A large proportion
of these are founded by American and British societies, but Nor-
way, Sweden, Germany, and Switzerland are also represented."

The course of study in these schools followed the contemporary *"
studies in the West.^^ The Report of the Presbyterian School in
Ningpo for 1849 gives the following schedule of studies: "The
girls are taught to read their own language. They do not learn

1 Report, Methodist Board of Foreign Missions, 1851, p. 134.

- The Spirit of Missions, November, 1852, p. 408.

' Report, American Board of Foreign Com., 1853, p. 132.

* Report, Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1854, p. 48

^ Report, American Board of Foreign Com., 1854, p. 139.

'Report, Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1857, p. 71.

' Report, American Baptist Mission Union, 1860, p. 65.

8 Wesleyan Report, 1860, p. 40.

« Reformed Church Report of Foreign Missions, 1860, p. 20.

'0 See Pott, F. L. H., Sketch of Chinese History, p. 155. Original text of
treaty in Methodist Missions Report, 1859, p. 23.

1^ Report, American Board of Foreign Missions, 1864, p. 129.

>2 Ibid., 1865, p. 126.

" Report, Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1872, p. 85.

'* Cf. China Mission Year Book, 1917.

" The Report of the School Committee of Brighton, Mass., 1849-50, p. 19,
speaks of the following subjects examined in District III : Reading, Geography,
Arithmetic, oral and written. Philosophy, Dialogues and Singing.

20 The Education of Girls in China

the Chinese classics but study books containing Christian in-
struction, and some elementary books in science. They are
taught Scriptural history orally by means of questions and
answers. Arithmetic and geography form a part of their studies,
and two of the girls are learning English. They are trained to
habits of industry, and taught in such kinds of work as will fit
them for usefulness in the stations they may occupy in future
life."^ The school in Foochow included in its courses of study
"Christian morals and doctrine, geography, history, astronomy,
mathematics, and daily reading of the Bible; also needlework and
domestic economy. "^ It was "expected that all graduates be
able to make, wash, and mend their own clothes, to cook and
take care of the house. "^

( Bible study was given especial emphasis in order to bring the
girls more closely in touch with Christian doctrine and perchance
to win them to a belief in Christianity. A mission school in
Swatow characterizes its curriculum as "mainly scriptural,
though the girls learn other things . . . which will be useful
to them when they return home. . . . Two Methodist
American brothers were present at the examination and were
much pleased with the recitations, particularly that given by the
older girls in the book of Romans, and went so far as to say that
they could outdo some theological schools at home."^
f Gradually political history of other nations as well as of China,
English language, and the Chinese classics became a part of the
curriculum. In 1883, the progressive Chinese demanded "new
educational methods, 'including the study of English, the Chinese
classics, music and other accomplishments' " so insistently in one
of the missions of Southern China that it led to the introduction
of these subjects.^

Some years later, Enghsh is spoken of as "somewhat of an
experiment as taught in the school," but the widened course of
study justified itself,, for the girls showed progress. In addition,
the study "broadened and strengthened their minds, and made

1 Report, Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1849, p. 36.

2 Report, Methodist Board of Foreign Missions, 1864, p. 25.

3 Ibid., 1864, p. 25.

* Report, Woman's Baptist Society, 1882, p. 78.

5 Report, Women's Foreign Mission Society, Methodist Church, 1888, p. 24,

The Modern Movement in Wonien^s Education 21

them freer in giving expression to the experience of their hearts."^
Participation in household duties and industrial arts remained an
integral part of the school progress. ) In Tungchow the girls spent
from one until three o'clock every day at some hand-work. They
knew "how to do some kinds of embroidery and to make tidies.
All but four were able to spin. ... A well-to-do church
member . . . engaged to take all the thread made in ex-
change for cloth. "^ In Ningpo, "the girls did all the cleaning,
washing and cooking ... to help the mission in its time of
difficulty."^

During the past twenty years the curriculum has been changed
as the curriculum of the West has been changed. Physical cul-
ture, general reading, elementary science, hygiene and domestic
science have been included. ' The present course of study of the
Central China Christian Educational Association requires for the
lower primary school courses in Scripture, Chinese classics,
Chinese language, history, geography, elementary science, object
lessons, with English optional; for the higher primary schools,
courses in Scripture, Chinese classics, Chinese language, history,
geography, science (science readers and physiology), mathe-
matics, English; for the middle schools. Scripture, Chinese
classics, Chinese composition, history, geography, zoology,
botany, physics, chemistry, mathematics (algebra, geometry,
trigonometry) with psychology as an alternative, and English.'*
The Keen School (Chung Hsi) of Tientsin thus outlines its pro-
gram for advance: "We (desire to) see every girl who graduates
from Keen School in the future going out with something she can
teach others, and by which she might earn her own livelihood if
necessary. (This . . . calls) for normal training and prac-
tice work, including places for day school, kindergarten, indus-
trial work and domestic science."^

Mission schools of all Protestant churches and all grades are
united under the Chinese Christian Educational Association®
with an advisory council made up of members from eight geo-

1 Report, Women's Foreign Mission Society Methodist Church, 1886, p. 30.

' Woman's Work for Woman, January, 1877, p. 372.

^ Report, Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, 1899, p. 43.

^ The Educational Revieic, July, 1916.

* Report, North China Woman's Conference (Methodist), 1917, p. 9.

* China Mission Year Book, 1907, p. 378.

22 The Education of Girls in China

graphical districts. The central association discusses questions
of wide significance, and formulates plans for educational prog-
ress. ; Affiliated associations in Fukien, Kwangtung, Shantung
and Honan, Manchuria, Chili and Shansi, Hunan, West, Central
and East China^ adapt and put into execution the suggestions of
the general committee, and propose further problems for con-
sideration. Each association has adopted a course of study to be
the standard for its district, and honors of some kind are given
to those schools which reach the standard set. Uniform exami-
nations are being introduced in several systems, and in the West
China Union two executive officers give full time to supervision
and administration. Membership in these associations is volun-
tary. No distinction is made between girls' and boys' schoolsJ
The system of girls' education as outlined by the missionary
union may be illustrated by Figure 1 .

Lower primary schools are scattered through the villages near
the larger centers. These are usually day schools, although
lower primary, higher primary, and middle schools are often
incorporated into one so-called "boarding school." The divid-
ing line in the primary schools is not uniform in the various asso-
ciations. Some divide the course into three years for the lower
primary schools and four years for the higher primary schools.
The middle school endeavors to prepare girls both for teaching
and for college through elective courses. In addition, many
centers have established special schools for the training of
teachers. There are four centers where instruction of college
grade is given to women: North China Woman's College, a
union institution at Pekin; Ginling College, a union institution
at Nanking; Foochow Woman's College and the American Board
College in Foochow; Canton Christian College in Canton, and
the Church Missionary Society in Fukien. The total attendance
at these colleges in 1916 was sixty-four girls.- A Union medical
school in Peking and denominational centers in other cities pre-
pare women to become physicians. A large proportion of the
hospitals train women nurses.

- (The influence of girls' mission schools in China, both in pre-
paring teachers and in bringing about a social demand for
women's education, has been exceedingly strong. Teachers in

1 Gamewell, F. D., Report in Educational Review, July, 1915.

2 See China Mission Year Book, 1917.

The Modern Movement in Women's Education

the missions are recruited as far as possible from their own
graduates, and many of the teachers in government institutions
for girls have been trained in the missions. Mr. P. W. Kuo says:
"Perhaps the earliest source of obtaining teachers capable in a

KINDERGARTEN

MEDICAL
_ J^OLLLGE _
_6 JEARS _

_ _^0'-LEGE_
4 YEARS

TRAININ& SCHOOL

OT-

NORMAL SCHOOL
3 YEARS

NORMAL SCHOOL

MIDDLE

2 o-r3

YEARS

SCHOOL

4 YEARS

k ■

HIGHER

PRIMAT^Y SCHOOL
3 YEARS

LOWER

PRIMARY

SCHOOL
4 YEARS

EVANGELISTIC

INDUSTRIAL

SCHOOL -foTWO MEN

USUALLY 2 YtAR-i

KINDERGARTEN

2 YEARS

Fig. 1. The Mission Educational System.

way to meet the new demand was the missionary schools. . . .
Some of the better and higher institutions managed by mission-
aries turned out many graduates more or less fitted to assume the
responsibility of teaching in new schools. It is but natural that
they were^sought for by the government as well as by private
schools."^ ]

» P. W. Kuo, Training of Teachers in China, pp. 19-20. (Master's thesis,
Teachers College, 1912.
3 , ,

24 The Education of Girls in China

The mission schools have also helped to overcome the preju-
dice toward education of girls and are now doing what they can
to meet the popular demand for increased opportunities. Mrs.
Ashmore, after about fifteen years of service, gives her experi-
ence: "when I first took the school we were obliged to tease the
parents for the privilege of educating their girls. Now I am con-
tinually asked, 'Is there any roorn in the schools for my girls?'
They know they must make application before school opens in
order to get them in."^ "Said an old native preacher who was
listening to the examination (of the Foochow Girls' School), 'Ac-
cording to this, our girls ought to eat the rice grains, and our boys,
the rice water.' "^ " Perhaps the most remarkable change is that
with respect to the education of women and girls," writes Bishop
Huntington. "Our own schools are utterly inadequate to meet
the growing demands. The girls' academy at Hengchow (an
interior city of Hunan) reports attendance larger than the build-
ing could comfortably accommodate. Were we ready to receive
them, three times our number would be glad to attend."^

The growth in the number of girls in Protestant mission schools
in China may be seen from the following table :

In 1849,* 3 schools, probably fewer than 50 pupils

In 1860,^ 12 schools, approximately 196 pupils

In 1869,6 31 schools, 556 pupils

In 1877,' 38 schools, 524 pupils

In 1896,8 308 schools, 6,798 pupils

In 1910,' (no report available), 16,190 pupils

In 1915,'» 45,168 pupils

In 1916,11 50,173 pupils

1 Report, Woman's Baptist Missionary Society, 1898, p. 151.

2 Report, W. F. M. S. of the Methodist Church, 1899, p. 42.
^ Report, Protestant Episcopal Church, 1913, p. 213.

* Compiled from Presbyterian Report, 1849 ; American Board Foreign
Mission Report, 1849.

* Compiled from Baptist Report, 1860; Presbyterian Report, 1860; Amer-
ican Board Report, 1860; Wesleyan Report, 1860. Checked by the reports of
all other reports of missions in China at that time.

' Chinese Recorder, Vol. II, p. 61 (August, 1869).

' Compiled from Records of the Missionary Conference, May, 1877, p. 326.

* Compiled from The China Mission Handbook, 1896.

' Compiled from The World Atlas of Christian Missions, 1910.
^^ Compiled from China Mission Year Book, 1916.
" Ibid., 1917.

The Modern Movement in Wometi's Education 25

The first sisters of the CathoHc Church reached China on June
21, 1848.^ They were the pioneers among those who have
estabUshed work in many cities of the nation. Although school
work has been only one phase of their service, it has been con-
sidered a very important activity. Rev. J. A. Walsh, president
of Maryknoll, writes: "In my recent journey I found schools for
girls in Tientsin, Peking, Chentingfu, Paotingfu, Hankow,
Shanghai, Hongkong, Canton, and every other place I visited.
Some of these schools were for somewhat advanced scholars, and
were attended by daughters of well-to-do Chinese. Others were
for children of the poor, and of such schools there are seemingly as
many as there are missions."- The subjects taught in the lower
schools are much like those in Protestant mission schools. Mrs.
Little reports a visit to one of them: "The girls read (Chinese)
fairly, and then sang. . . . They could not answer questions
in arithmetic, but all had rosy cheeks, clean faces, and bright in-
telligent eyes."^ The subjects outlined for the Canton school,
which may be considered typical, are: "English, French, music,
drawing, the usual grammar and high school branches and most
important of all. Catholic doctrine, principles and practice."* '

In 1912 the enrollment of girls in the higher schools was 1453,
in the lower schools, 48,534,^ making a total of 49,987 girls in
Catholic schools.

. Private Schools

In JS97 the first school for girls, established and financed by
the Chinese people, was opened. ^Mr. King Ling Shan, together
with other leading men of Shanghai, resolved at their first meet-
ing that "as gentlemen they could finance the scheme, but that
the executive management should be entrusted to their wives.
Accordingly, in due time a committee of ladies undertook the
further management of the enterprise."^ The school opened
with an enrollment of sixteen on June first. ) In 1898 a day school

1 Catholic Missions, April, 1913, p. 57. See Streit, P. C, Atlas Hierarchical.

42.

» Rev. J. A. Walsh, personal letter, April 26, 1918.

' Mrs. A. Little, In the Land of the Blue Gown, p. 123.

* Catholic Missions, May, 1910, p. 76.

' Zeitschrift fur Missions-Wisscnschaft, 1912, p. 212.

• Triennial Report of the China Educational Association, 1899, p. 160.

26 The Education of Girls in China

in another part of the city was added. In May, 1899, there were
thirty-five girls in the older school and twenty girls in the new day
school. , They taught English, Chinese books, drawing, painting,
geography, arithmetic, and foreign sewing. A reaction which
was preliminary to the Boxer uprising closed this school in 1899.^
As soon as the anti-Western furor had subsided, in 1901 a changed
Empress Dowager issued an edict^ permitting the opening of
girls' schools. Slowly at first, then, as they succeeded and met
with no governmental antagonism, more rapidly, schools were
opened. The following table shows the growth of the movement
in Shanghai:

1901— Wu Pen School (Strive for Duty)
1902 — I Kwo School (Love for Country)
1903— Chung Mang School (Worship the Noble)
1904— Ch'eng Tung School (East of the City)
1905 — Anglo Chinese School

T'ien Tsu Hwei (Natural Feet Society)

Chi Sin School (Cultivate Elegance)

Pei Hao School (Develop Goodness)
1906— Fu Chiang School (Help to Attain Strength)

Ching Hwa School (Struggle for Reform)

Tsai Nyi School (Silk Worm Industry)'

"In Tientsin in 1906 there were five girls' schools under gov-
ernment supervision with an aggregate attendance of about 250
women and girls.""* In Peking the Manchu princesses opened
several schools for girls which set an example that common people
might follow without fear.^

The private schools have since then flourished in every part of
China. After the Revolution in 1911, an even greater impetus
was given to woman's education, and many wealthy citizens
founded girls' schools as an evidence of their patriotism. A
widow of Hangchow, Chekiang Province, opened a school with
funds subscribed by officials and progressive citizens. The
school flourished the first year, but the second year her request for

1 Chinese Recorder, October, 1899, p. 500.

- Headland, I. T., Court Life in China, p. 103.

* See Paddock, Estelle, article in Woman's Work in the Far East, June, 1907,
p. 79.

* See Mrs. M. L. Taft's article in Woman's Work in the Far East, Septem-
ber, 1906, p. 105.

^ Headland, I. T., Court Life in China, Chap. XIV.

The Modern Movement in Women's Education 27

funds did not meet with ready response. After a desperate effort
she wrote to the officials saying, "When these letters reach you,
I will be a corpse, as I propose to take my own life in order to
arouse public sentiment to the importance of the education of
girls." This brought about the desired result, for memorial
funds were quickly raised to perpetuate the work of this martyr
to the cause of woman's education.^

One of the most interesting of the schools founded at this time
was the Ching Tsun School in Tientsin, managed entirely by
some of the graduates of the Girls' Normal School. "It was
started by a group of these girls just before they graduated last
summer (1912). It is now (1913) directed by six or seven of
them who do all the teaching . . . and give their services
free. Two live at the school and spend their whole time there,
but the rest are teaching elsewhere as well, and only give a few
hours per week to . . . Ching Tsun. . . . Each of the
girls . . . gave her first month's salary to support this school.
It is now kept up in part by these funds, but gets a grant
of $60.00 (Mexican) per month from the local educational au-
thorities, which covers rent. The furniture is old stock . . .
from the Normal School. Scholars pay one dollar (Mexican)
per month . . . which goes toward food for the teachers
who live at the school, together with servants' wages, etc. In
December there were over 50 scholars; 14 in the senior class and
over 30 in the lower class, whose ages ranged from 5 or 6 to 15 or
16 years. The fact that the total number of scholars has now
reached 98 with 23 in the senior class and 75 in the junior speaks
well for the good management and popularity of the school."^

A great impetus has been given to industrial training for girls
through these institutions. "The Cheng Tung School of Shang-
hai offers an extension course in practical arts, including satchel
making, embroidery, lace work, pasteboard work and drawing. "^
"At Nantung, Mr. Chang established a school for girls . . .
with courses in silk culture, raising silkworms, unravelling co-
coons, spinning, tailoring, cooking, weaving rushes, artificial

• See Cyclopedia of Education, "China, Recent Educational Reform," Vol. I,
p. 638.

2 Saxelby, E. Mary, Woman's Work in Tientsin, April, 1913, pamphlet.

3 Translated from Chinese Educational Review, 1909, with aid of T. H.
Cheng, "Shih Chuan," p. 45.

28 The Education of Girls in China

flower making."^ In Changsha a special school for embroidery-
was started.^ In Hsiang Twan there are four special courses:
Sewing, silkworm rearing, dyeing, and crocheting.^ Some of
these schools open their doors, only to fail, but the courses they
offer grow out of the needs of the people. There is an expressed
desire for education for women that will give definite, measurable
results in a short time.

The private schools include all grades, and every degree of
efficiency from that one which taught English from A to L,* to
the Chu Nan Girls' Normal School, equipped with garden, in-
firmary and gymnasium, offering normal, higher, and lower
elementary courses and reporting in 1916 a total enrollment of
301.^ Many of these schools have become incorporated as
government schools.

Government Schools

In 1901 the edict of the Empress Dowager Tze Hsi permitted
the establishment of girls' schools in China. The immediate
response in the numbers of private schools revealed the desire of
the people for such education. However, not until 1907^ were
schools for girls definitely and officially provided for by the
government. Then a system of education was outlined similar
to that planned for boys' schools in 1903. When the educational
laws for the Republic were drawn up in 1912, the Minister of
Education issued this most important order: "The firmness of
the foundation upon which the Republic of China has been
founded depends on Education. Under the new form of govern-
ment the responsibilities of the officials and private individuals
who are engaged in educational work are greater and heavier
than ever before. The backwardness of our country, that has
hindered China from competing with the World Powers, is not

^ Translated from Chinese Educational Review, May 25, 1912, with aid of Mr.
T. H. Cheng, "Shih Chuan."

2 Ibid., September 10, 1910. "Shih Chuan," p. 80.
^Ibid, 1916.

* Mrs. Gamewell, Gateway to China, p. 121.

^ Translated from the Chinese Educational Review, 1916, with the aid of Mr.
T. H. Cheng.

* Kuo, P. W., Chinese Systevi of Public Education, pp. 78, 101, 104.

The Modern Movement in Women''s Education 29

clue to the stupidity or laziness of its people, but is due to lack of
education. We must, hereafter, make our best effort to develop
and encourage women's education as well as that for men. We
must emphasize and provide for social as well as for school
education."^

To make the education of girls more possible, the Board of
Education decreed on May 11, 1912, that "In the lower elemen-
tary^ grades, boys and girls may attend the same school."'^ The
boys and girls in higher primary schools, however, are required to
form separate classes.^

Soon followed the order that definitely estabUshed the ideal
of universal education and the aim of the minimum length for
school life. The law makes no distinction between girls and boys.
"Every child, after the second day of its sixth year of age, should
enter primary school until fourteen years of age. Children
below six years of age cannot be forced to attend school."'* The
present regulation for universal education characterizes the ages
from six to fourteen as the "learning years" of each child.
Parents and guardians are responsible for the failure of their
children to attend schools during this period, and must report
sickness or poverty to the authorities. This regulation is forti-
fied by a child labor law which prohibits employment of children
of school age.

The Chinese educational system as outlined September 3, 1912,
provides as its foundation the four-year coeducational primary
school, called Citizens' School since July 31, 1915. This school
prepares for three alternative schools: higher primary school,
with a course of three years; vocational school "A" of three
years; and a supplementary school of two years. The higher pri-
mary school prepares for four schools: middle school, with a
course of four years; vocational school "B," with a course of
three years; supplementary school, with a course of two years;

' An order issued September 2, 1912, by the Minister of the Board of Educa-
tion, translated by Mr. J. T. Hsi, from Educational Documents {Chiao Yu Pu
Wen Tu Liao Piang), Chap. V, p. 23: art. 21-22.

2 Ibid.

^ Orders issued by the Board of Education on the Regulations for Higher
Primary Schools {Chiao Yu Pu Ching Chun Kao Teng Hsiao Hsueh Hsiao Ling),
art. 16. Translated by Mr. J. T. Hsi.

* An order issued by the Board of Education, September 28, 1912. Trans-
lated by Mr. J. T. Hsi from Educational Documents (Chiao Yu Pu Ling), p. 16.

30 The Education of Girls in China

and normal school with a course of five years. The middle school
prepared for college with six or seven years' course and technical
school with a four or five years' course, and the higher normal
school with a five years' course. The lower normal school grad-
uates may finish the higher normal in three years."" The Chiao
Pu illustrated the system as in Figure 2.

In 1913 for the education of girls there were:

2482 Primary Schools 100 Lower Normal Schools
446 Higher Primary Schools 1 Higher Agricultural School

2 Agricultural Schools 3 Higher Industrial Schools

53 Industrial Schools 15 Higher Special Schools

11 Special Schools 1 Higher Normal School'

11 Middle Schools

The college and technical schools have yet to be added in order
to make the educational system complete for women. Doubt-
less these will eventually be built.

( The courses of study as suggested by the Board of Education
in 1915 comprise for the Citizens' School: the Chinese classics,
Chinese literature, ethics, mathematics, manual training, draw-
ing, music, and physical training. Sewing is added to the cur-
riculum for girls' schools.^ .'"The courses in the citizens' schools
on ethics, classics, Chinese literature and mathematics are re-
quired. The rest of the courses may be excused on account of
the physical incapacity of the pupils. "^ The general aim of the
Citizens' School is "to train students both physically and men-
tally with proper emphasis upon morality, because ethics is the
foundation for citizenship. The students should also obtain a
foundation of that education which is essential to everyday life."^
( The course of study prescribed for the Higher Primary Schools
consists of ethics, classics, language, mathematics, history, geog-
raphy, science, agriculture, commercial courses, modern lan-
guage, domestic science, manual training, drawing, singing and

1 From the Annual Report of the Board of Education 1913 {Chung Hwa
Min Kwoa Ti Er Tze Chiao Yu Tung Chi Tu Piao). Translated by Mr. J.
T. Hsi, p. 1.

2 Regulations for the Citizens' Schools {Kwoa Min Hsueh Hsiao Ling),
issued July 31, 1915, art. 12.

3 Ibid. Chap. Ill, art. 15.
*Ibid.,SiTt. 1.

The Modern Movement in Women's Education 31

physical training.^ "The object of history is to enable children
to comprehend the fundamental principles of the development of
China and to prepare for citizenship. The contents of history

COLLEGE

3ot4 YEARS

PREPARATORY
3 YEARS

HIG

NORMAL

HI&H SCHOOL

3 YEARS
■" preTaratory"

1 YEAR

HER

TECHNICAL SCHOOl

3 or 4 YEARS
"" Preparaiory"

1 YE.AR

NORMM
SCHOOL
4 YEARS

PRePARATORY
1 YEAR

MIDDLE
SCHOOL
4 YEARS

VOCATIONAL
SC HO^L

3 YENRS

SUPPLEMENTARY
SCHOOL

Z YEARS

HIGH

PRIWRY SCHOOL

3 YtKRS

VOCATIONAL
iCUOQk _

SUfPLEMENTARY
SCHOOL

2 YtNRS

3 YEARS

PRIMARY
SCHOOL

4 YEARS

Fig. 2. The Government Educational System.

should treat of the achievements of Hwang Ti,^ the biographies
of all great men, the development of civilization in the Far East,
the changes of the forms of government and the relations of our

' Order issued by Board of Education on the Regulations for Higher Primary
School, art. 2, 9.

2 Hwang Ti (2697 B.C.) was one of the earhest traditional important rulers
of the Empire. He invented the Chinese Calendar and his wife taught Seri-
culture to the people. See Pott, F. L. H., A Sketch of Chinese History, p. 10.

32' The Education of Girls in China

country to other countries during the last one hundred years. ^
. . . The object of geography is to teach students to know
the surface of the earth and the conditions under which men hve.
It also teaches pupils the present conditions of their own country
and may develop patriotism. The geographical conditions of
their country, its climate, its capital, its commercial centers; the
movement of the earth and its effect on man, on commerce, on
products; the capitals of other countries, their commercial cen-
ters and their products should be taught. The political and
economic condition of China in relation to that of other coun-
tries should be included. In teaching geography the teacher
must use as a basis of comparison physical features of the locality.
This method will arouse interest and stimulate local pride.^
. . . The object of science is to teach students to know the
natural phenomena of things in relation to mankind. The
courses should consist of botany, zoology, mineralogy. These
courses should give familiarity with the appearance, names and
functions of natural objects, and should show the relation of their
development to human progress. The fundamental principles
of chemistry and physics, including analysis, synthesis and con-
struction of simple apparatus, and the principles of hygiene are
also to be taught. In science the courses offered must be prac-
tical. They must be related to agriculture, fishing industry, or
domestic science. Elementary experiments shall be required."^
"The object of teaching agriculture is that students may know the
principles of agriculture, that they may develop a habit of dili-
gence, and that they may understand local conditions and possi-
bilities in agriculture, forestry and fishing. Fertility of the soil,
possibility of irrigation, use of fertilizers and agricultural instru-
ments; the methods of farming, rearing silkworms, planting mul-
berry trees, raising cattle and other domestic animals. Any
details of the above mentioned courses may be chosen to suit the
local needs.* . . . The object of commercial courses is to
teach the principles of commerce. This study should also develop

1 Order issued by Board of Education on the Regulations for Higher Pri-
mary Schools, Chap. I, art. 3.
^ Ibid., art. 4.
^ Ibid., art. 5.
* Ibid., art. 6.

The Modern Movement in Women's Education 33

in students a habit of diligence and trustworthiness. Under
commercial courses, trading, banking, transportation, insurance
and other courses connected with commerce should be chosen so
as to suit the local need. In teaching commercial courses, book-
keeping should be added to Chinese language, mathematics, geog-
raphy and science.^ The object of teaching modern language is
to enable students to speak and use a foreign language. . . .
In choosing text-books the teacher must select those appropriate
to the student's age. In teaching modern language use practical
words and in translation use pure language, such as Mandarin.-
In teaching home administration the object is to train stu-
dents to manage a home. Habits of economy and of cleanliness
should be developed in them. Sewing and other fundamental
principles of domestic science should be taught."^

"The courses of study for middle school are ethics, the Chinese
classics, modern language, history, geography, mathematics,
natural science, physics, chemistry, civics, economics, drawing,
manual training, music, physical education. For girls, middle
school courses on gardening, housekeeping and sewing are to be
added. Of the modern languages, Enghsh should be emphasized,
and French, German or Russian, is to be studied, according to the
location of the place. "'*

The Normal School curriculum includes ethics, classics, educa-
tion (psychology, logic, philosophy, history of education, educa-
tional administration, practice teaching), Chinese literature,
penmanship, modern language, history, geography, mathematics,
(arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, bookkeeping,
methods of teaching), natural science (botany, zoology, psychol-
ogy, mineralogy, geology, methods of teaching), physics, chemis-
try, political science, drawing, manual training, domestic science
and gardening, sewing, music and physical education. Although
they are given comparatively few hours in the course of study,
the domestic science courses, especially in the normal schools, are
considered of highest importance. ) Mr. Tang Hwa Lung, Minis-

1 Order issued by Board of Education on the Regulations for Higher Pri-
mary Schools, art. 7.

' Ibid., art. 8.

3 Ibid., art. 9.

* Orders for Middle Schools given by the Board of Education, December 2,
1912 {Chung Hsueh Hsiao Ling), art. 1. Translated by Mr. J. T. Hsi.

34 The Education of Girls in China

ter of Education in 1914, writes: "We should study how to de-
velop intellect and skill (in our school girls) . Otherwise, it will be
impossible for China to have a footing in the world of civiliza-
tion."* However, "the policy of the Board is to make women
good wives and mothers." ^,In 1916, Mr. Chiang Han Chi, presi-
dent of the Girls' Normal School in Hanchow, wrote: "The
(conservative) conception of girls' education is responsible for
our non-progress. . . . The girls in the normal schools
should have some domestic education, but they cannot be ab-
sorbed in it. . . . Nevertheless . . . we must have
good mothers and good housewives."- In the domestic science
department of Normal School Number I of Kiangsu Province, a
practice home of three rooms, appropriately equipped, is used for
experiment. Every month three pupils above the third year
class make it their home. With the permission of the parents
they adopt a child from the elementary school to live with them.
They change the arrangement of the furniture frequently and
cook the suppers themselves. In the cookery department of the
school sixteen girls participate daily, alternating the tasks. Two
girls make the menus for the day, and these are systematically
followed.^

The growth of the number of girls in school since 1904 can be
readily shown from the following table :

In 1904, 25 schools, 468 pupils

1905, 71 schools, 1,665 pupils

1906, 233 schools, 5,945 pupils

1907, 391 schools, 11,936 pupils*

1908, 513 schools, 18,202 pupils

1909, 722 schools, 26,465 pupils

1910-11, no reports. Many schools closed because of the Revolution.

1912, 2,389 schools, 141,130 pupils^

1913, 3,123 schools, 166,964 pupils^
1917, 3,533 schools, 170,789 pupils^

1 Chinese Educational Review, 1914. Translated by T. H. Cheng.

= The Chinese Weekly, 1916. Translated by T. H. Cheng.

5 Chinese Educational Review, 1916, Vol. VIII; No. VI. Translated by
T. H. Cheng.

* The year girls' schools were made an integral part of the system.

' Statistics of the Department of Education of China, 1912 {Chung Hwa
Min Kwoa Ti Tse Chiao Yu Tung Chi Tu Piao), p. 1.

(Notes ^ and " on page 35).

The Modern Movement in Women^s Education 35

Relationship Between Mission, Private and Governmei^t

Schools

Mission schools were the pioneers in the field of modern educa-
tion and are to-day rendering great service in all departments of
school work. Private schools represented the first efforts of the
Chinese people to provide for themselves the new type of schools,
and are to-day a strong factor in educational progress. The
government schools, established in 1907, have accepted the new
education from the West and have grown much more rapidly
than either mission or private schools. To-day, after only
eleven years of existence, they comprise the largest educational
system in China.

The government educational authorities, however, exercise no
cramping control over either private or mission schools. The
private schools may sustain three relationships to the govern-
ment. If they receive no funds, they may be absolutely inde-
pendent from all control and inspection (although periodical
reports to the government authorities are required). If sub-
sidies from the government are received, in addition to reports
they are inspected periodically by officials and are required to
maintain a certain standard of work. If there are no government
schools near, private schools may be delegated by the govern-
ment to provide education for children in the immediate ^cinity,
and are thus incorporated into the government system.
( The relation of the mission schools to the government system
is still undetermined. The mission schools are given full freedom
to extend education and courtesies are continually exchanged
between government and mission institutions. Officials and
leaders in national affairs contribute, as individuals, to mission
school support and educate their daughters in mission schools.
Perhaps some mission centers report statistics of attendance to
the provincial educational authorities, but it is not universally
done. Recently provincial commissioners have been instructed
"to report on all the schools established by foreigners in their

* Statistics of the Department of Education of China, 1913.

' From a private report sent to the writer from the Minister of Education
of China, March 5, 1918. The Minister says in part, "Though it (the table)
is made on the basis of recent statistics it is not quite accurate because many
provincial girls' schools have not yet been reported to the Board of Education."

36 The Education of Girls in China

respective provinces."^ No official recognition, however, has
yet been accorded to the missionary educational systems, al-
though a basis of recognition which will leave freedom for change
and experiment, worked out through conference with the Chris-
tian educational associations, would probably be welcomed.
Such recognition would make possible national organization of
plans for education which would eliminate competition and would
thus utilize all available forces for the rapid promotion of educa-
tion. It is apparent that only united concentrated effort can
bring any adequate opportunity for education to this generation
of Chinese girlhood.

The Educational Review, July, 1918, p. 269.

CHAPTER III

THE PRESENT SITUATION

The Rapid Rise of Girls' Schools

( The outstanding feature in the education of women to-day is
the rapid rise in the number of students. The growth began in
1877 during the period of missionary education, before the
government permitted schools for women. This growth was
contemporaneous with the first educational mission to America.^
The numbers increased gradually until 1896. The Boxer out-
break of 1900 had no permanent detrimental effect on the enroll-
ment in mission schools although there are no statistical reports for
girls' schools until 1908. The agitation for reform and govern-
mental encouragement from 1902-1907 resulted in the establish-
ment of Chinese private, municipal and government institutions.
The enrollment in these, together with that in missions schools, in-
ceased steadily until the Revolution in 1910-11 made it necessary
to suspend work in Chinese schools in many places. However,
the most remarkable increase of the entire movement took place
in 1912. The mission report of 1915 and the partial government
report of 1917 indicate that the numbers continue to grow. The
following table shows the statistical increase for all China, 1849-
1915, mission schools only:^

In 1849, less than, 50 pupils
1860, 196 pupils
1869, 556 pupils
1877, 524 pupils
1896, 6,358 pupils

1909, Government and

1910, Mission, 42,655 pupils'

1916, Mission and

1917, Government, 220,705 pupils^

1 Kuo, P. W., Chinese System of Education, p. 68.

2 It has been possible to find records of the number of girls in school in
Catholic Missions for the year 1912 only. Hence they are not included in this
table.

' In 1909 was printed the last available report before the suspension of
government schools during the Revolution. In 1910 was printed the first
report of Mission Schools for girls after the Boxer Rebellion.

* These reports are the latest ones which are available.

The Education of Girls in China

Elimination in the Schools as a Whole

The great majority of the girls in school in China attend the
lower elementary schools: 170,057 are in the lower primary or

sto.ooo

eoo.ooo

leo.ooo

160,000

140,000

130,000

100,000

eo,ooo

60,000

40,000

30,000

CDO V

CD cr* a>

Fig. 3. The Rise of Girls' Schools.

The Present Situation 39

citizens' schools; 27,909 are in higher primary schools,^ and 14,909
in middle schools.

Lower Elementary Mission"^ Government^ Total

Lower Elementary or Special Schools 40,905 133,509 174,414

Higher Elementary 6,889 21,655 28,544

Middle or above Normal School 2,122 11,638 13,760

Over 80 per cent of the girls who enter school are in the lower
elementary school, 13 per cent in the higher elementary school,
and 6 per cent in the middle school. This indicates that eight out
of ten girls who have enrolled in schools are in their first four years
of study,^ and that 6 per cent only have remained for seven years
of study. When curricula are to be considered, this fact is of
vital significance.

Geographical Distribution of Educational Institutions

( The universal tendency of schools to center in the large cities
and to neglect country districts is evident in China. The coast
provinces are comparatively well provided with schools while the
inland provinces have only a scattering few. A notable exception
to this rule, however, is Szechuen, which leads the entire nation in
the number of government schools and ranks third in the number
of Protestant mission schools for girls. It was impossible to
secure information concerning the location of government schools
for girls, but the map of the location of Protestant mission
schools for girls shows the general distribution (see frontispiece).
The number of girls' schools in each province is made clear in
the following table :

Mission Government

Province Schools^ Schools^ Total

Anhwei 85 25 110

Chekiang 182 249 431

* China Mission Year Book, 1917, statistics for 1916.

- This includes only Protestant missions. Catholic statistics are not
available.

^ Annual Report of the Board of Education.

* This high percentage may be partially explained by the growth in the
number of girls in schools, since, of course, all girls must begin in the lower
elementary grades.

' Committee on Education of the Edinburgh Commission on Education.

* Report of Minister of Education, 1913, p. 1.

40 The Education of Girls in China

Mission

Government

Province

Schools

Total

Chili

141

324

465

Peking

Fukien

650

669

Honan

156

Hunan

131

219

Hupeh

236

194

430

Kansu

Kiangsi

115

Kiangsu

244

263

507

Kwangsi

Kweichow

114

139

Kwangtung

481

532

Shansi

259

343

Shangtung

780

197

977

Shensi

Szechuen

474

340

816

Yunnan

252

306

The coast provinces of Chili, Shangtung, Kiangsu, Chekiang,
Fukien and Kwangtung aggregate 3,581 schools. The central
provinces, bordering on the trade routes: The Yantze River and
the railroads; Szechuen, Hupeh, Hunan, Kiangsi, Anhwei, and
Honan, aggregate 1,845 schools. The inland provinces of
Yunnan, Kweichow, Kwangsi, Kansu, Shensi and Shansi report
only 983 schools for girls, i Thus, as a rule, trade and schools
have developed together, leaving as yet untouched, great geo-
graphical sections of the country. The comparatively strong
hold of tradition upon those who live in country districts, the
large percentage of rural population, and the primitive methods of
transportation accentuate the difficulty of this problem. ^

Number of Girls in School Compared with Total
Number of Girls of School Age

In 1910, the Ministry of the Interior (Minchengpu) reported to
the United States Department of State a population of 331,188,-
000.^ In Some Problems in Administration, Dr. G. D. Strayer
places the proportion of school children to the total population of
the United States at 17.4 per cent. Assuming that the same
proportion will be approximately correct for China, there are

1 See Bashford, J. W., loc. cit., p. 19.

The Present Situation 41

probably in that republic to-day about 56,626,712 children of
school age. Half of these, or 28,313,356, are probably girls.

In 1916, Protestant missions reported 49,916 girls in school;
in 1912 the Catholic mission reported 49,987 girls in school; in
1918 the government reported 170,789 girls in private and govern-
ment schools. Thus, from the latest statistics available of the
three great branches of education, there is a total of 270,692 girls
in school.^ The number of girls who probably do not yet attend
school is 28,042,412. The proportion of girls not in school is
95 per cent of the girls of school age. This is graphically shown
as follows:

Girls in school.... 17.0,789

Girls not in school .... 28 042 412

Fig. 4. School Population of Girls of School Age.

It is evident, therefore, that the number of girls attending
school in China is increasing rapidly and that the schools are
clustered in the great cities along trade routes. Probably not
one out of one hundred girls of school age enters an educational
institution, and four-fifths of those who do enter are registered
in the first three years of the course. Over twenty-eight million
girls of school age do not yet attend school. Education for girls
in China has, in reality, barely commenced.

' Statistics for boys' schools from the same sources at the same times are :

Catholic missions 82,863 {Zeitschrift fiir Missions-Wissenschaft,

1912)
Government missions. . . . 3,476,242 (Government Report, 1913)
Protestant missions 117,483 (Mission Year Book, 1917)

Estimated total number of

boys in school 3,676,588

PART II

CHAPTER I
THE SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION

In order to study the actual status and the practical results of
the present education of women in China, questionnaires were
sent to eighteen widely distributed centers. Fourteen of these
were under mission control, and four under governmental con-
trol. The questionnaires were prepared for individual replies,
and hence were necessarily in the Chinese language. A separate
list of questions was formulated for each of the following groups:
pupils, teachers, graduates, and non-educated women. The
questionnaire for pupils, translated into English, is printed be-
low. Upon the replies to this alone, the conclusions of this
research are based.

Questionnaire for Pupils
Name of school:

Location (province, county, city):

Name of pupil:

Year and month of birth:

Age:

Place of birth:

How many months have you studied at this school?

What year of study is this? Please state clearly the year of lower primary,

higher primary or middle school.
Do you live at home or at school?
Do you go home every week?
Do you expect to graduate or not?

How many years and months do you have yet in school before you graduate?
After you have finished school, what work do you expect to do?
Married or single?
Husband's occupation:
Father's occupation:
Father's yearly income:
Number of brothers and sisters :
Number of brothers and sisters in school;
42

The Scope of the Investigation

What
What
What
What
Chart
Chart

Chart

relatives have studied in China?
relatives have studied abroad?
intimate friends have studied in China?
intimate friends have studied abroad?
I. Daily schedule of studies.
II. Schools previously attended.
Names.
Locations.
Months in each.

III. Subjects studied previously.
Number of months' study in each.
Number of recitations per week.

IV. What did you do last Saturday?

What did you do your last day at home?

Of 3000 pupil questionnaires
per cent, have been returned
tion was received are :

sent out, 1176 answers, or 39.2
The centers from which informa-

Chili Province
(North China)

Fukien Province

Kiangsi Province
(Central China)
Kiangsu Province

Changli
Peking
Tientsin
Foochow

Kiukiang
Shanghai

Nanking

Kwangtung Province Canton
(South China)

Shantung Province
(North China)

Szechuan Province
(West China)

Hwai Yuan
Chengtu

Chungking

Suining

Tungchuanfu

Pwpil
Questionnaire

Alderman School
Gamewell School
Anglo-Chinese School
Foochow Girls' School
Hwa Nan School
Tao Hsu School
Yu Ying School
Rulison School

Ques-
tionnaires
Returned
85
2
9
44
35
32
30
98

To-
tals

141

Bridgeman School 82
Chisiu School (Chinese

Private) 21

McTyeire School 205
West Gate School

(Chinese Private) 47

Christian School 43
Gov't Higher Primary

School 9

Gov't Normal School 15

Methodist School 67 489

American Board School 31

Gov't Normal School 11

True Light Seminary 101

Union Normal School 12 155

Presbyterian School 48 48

Hwa Ying School 59
Union Normal

School 16

Shu Te School 36

Hwa Ying School 18

Friend School 20 149

Grand Total 1176

44 The Education of Girls in China

The answers to the pupil questionnaire have been received
from every part of China, North, South, Central, West, and East.
Twenty-six institutions are represented: 3 schools in Chili
Province with 96 answers; 4 in Fukien Province with 141 an-
swers; 1 in Kiangsi Province with 98 answers; 8 in Kiangsu
Province with 489 answers; 4 in Kwangtung Province with 155
answers; 1 in Shantung Province with 48 answers; and 5 in
Szechuan Province with 149 answers. Of the 26 institutions 21
are mission, 3 are government, and 2 are Chinese private schools.
The last mentioned have been included although it is realized
that general conclusions with regard to this group cannot be
based on the returns from so small a number.^

All of the institutions from which adequate data were received
are boarding schools. Day pupils from the immediate vicinity,
however, usually attend. The majority of these institutions are
higher primary and middle schools, with a preparatory lower
primary department. Scholars who have attended or have grad-
uated from other lower schools enter the higher primary and mid-
dle schools and thus the enrollment is increased. Hence it be-
comes apparent at the outset that we are studying a highly
selected group, probably much superior to the group in the aver-
age lower primary schools.^ The investigation does reveal,
however, present tendencies in the elementary and secondary
education of women in China.

1 It is interesting to note, however, that brief comparisons of the individ-
ual government and private institutions with the general results found in this
study do not show a wide variation.

2 Cf. Part I, Chap. Ill, "Elimination in the School as a Whole."

CHAPTER II

THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND ASPIRATIONS OF
THE CHINESE SCHOOLGIRL

_ Social Status

The traditional social divisions of Chinese society are: (1)
Scholars, who include officials and the majority of the educated
classes; (2) Farmers; (3) Artisans; (4) Merchants; and (5)
Military Men and Servants. In the present changing order of
society, these classes, which have never been separated by rigid
lines, have become even less defined. Modern business pursuits
and the professions are factors in society. The merchant and
military groups have progressed more rapidly than the artisan
and farmer classes. However, even to-day occupations fall
naturally into these five classes, and with minor adaptations this
grouping has been followed in this study. The professional men,
and those who are engaged in work requiring higher education,
are classified as scholars; the merchant class includes business
men as well as those who are reported as merchants, and the fifth
class mentioned above has been subdivided.

In view of these relatively important class divisions, it is
desirable to learn whether or not the schoolgirl population, which
is extremely small in number, comes from highly selected social
groups. The report of the father's occupation was asked in each
of the 1176 pupil questionnaires from the twenty-five schools.
With the exception of a single institution in Shanghai, every school
which sent answers to the questionnaire is represented in the
returns. From the total number of 936 answers received, 2
which reported fathers in a foreign country but which did not
state their occupation, 23 which reported fathers retired from
active business, and 146 which reported fathers deceased are
ehminated. Of the 765 remaining, 294, or 38.5 per cent, belong
to the scholar class; 59, or 7.7 per cent, to the farmer; 11, or 1.4
per cent, to the artisan; 379, or 49.5 per cent, to the merchant;
21, or 2.7 per cent, to the servant, and 1, or 1 per cent, to the
military classes.

The Education of Girls in China

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The Social Environment of the Chinese Schoolgirl 47

It is encouraging to note that the range of occupations included
all grades of the social scale. Evidently no class as a class has
failed to be reached by these schools. On the other hand, 88 per
cent of the pupils come from the scholar and merchant classes.
Nearly nine-tenths of the girls reporting belong to these groups,
which probably comprise a relatively small proportion of the
entire population of China. ^ This is especially significant in
that it points to a probable selection of the fathers of the girls
who attend school from the standpoint of general intelligence. )

/ It has been customary in China for every family of the lower
classes to set apart one of its members, usually the brightest one,
for the scholar-representative, and all the others have worked to
make him successful. This conscious selection through many^
generations may have produced a distinct superior-intelligence
group. Probably the same selection, although less consciously
brought about, has taken place among the business class. J As the
old traditional bonds of duty to the father's occupation have been
broken, the keenly intellectual men have probably taken the lead
and reconstructed business along progressive lines. The natural
intellectual superiority of the average schoolgirl whose father has
evidently more than ordinary ability is as yet unsupported by
scientific investigation. But whether or not intellectual selec-
tion has taken place in the business and professional classes,^
it is apparent from the data that the members of these groups are
people of broad experience and progressive philosophies, who
recognize the necessity of education for women.

f The agricultural population of the nation is probably much
larger than that of the professional class, and perhaps larger than
that of the business class. ^ The daughters of the agricultural
population are evidently little influenced by the schools, while
those of the laboring and artisan classes are almost untouched.
It seems likely that the fathers engaged in these occupations
are often uneducated and traditional in their thinking. The need

1 It is impossible to state accurate comparisons on account of the lack of
census reports.

* The probability of such selection would seem to follow the conclusions of
Terman. See Terman, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence, p. 96.

2 This statement is unsupported by census returns. However, it has been so
estimated by students of China. See King, F. H., Farmers of Forty Centuries,
p. 4.

48 The Education of Girls in China

and possibility for the education of their daughters has not been
recognized by them. Further, social usages in the village com-
munity are often more rigid and more difficult to waive than in
larger centers, and the daughter herself may hesitate to depart
from popular custom. Again, there are few good schools in the
country so that the country village girl must leave home if she
would obtain even the most meagre education.^

The problem of the untouched classes is one of the greatest in
Chinese education to-day. If the womanhood of China is to be
educated, the girls whose fathers are farmers, laborers, and arti-
sans must be reached. They have evidently been neglected and
only conscious effort and propaganda directed to these classes by
educators will make schooling possible for them. |

Economic Status

The request for the report of the fathers' salaries was answered
by very few of the pupils. Two hundred and twenty out of the
1176 reported both occupation and salary of their fathers.
Nevertheless, from these few, some indications of the economic
situation of the students may be found. The range of salary
income is very great; from below $100 Mexican^ per year to
$50,000. However, the median salary falls just above $500.
The median salary of three educators is just above $400; of five
religious workers, $100-$199; of twenty-six officials, $1000;
of thirty-five business men, about $500; of forty-six merchants,
$1000-$1499. The median income of the three farmers reported
is $100; that of the printer and the ten servants, $100.

The religious workers and the farmers seem to receive about
equal salaries, but it may be that in the mission schools (where
most of the daughters of religious workers attend) pastors'
daughters receive certain perquisites. The meagre data at hand
seem to indicate that economic and social cleavages follow approx-
imately the same division lines. If the indications of the data
may be taken as suggestive of a more widespread condition,^

1 Cf. Part II, Chap. III.

^ The Mexican dollar is worth about 50 cents gold in normal money markets.
This standard is used uniformly throughout this study.

^ This seems probable from the observation of students of China. Cf.
Ross, E. A., The Changing Chinese, pp. 103-5, p. 338; Bashford, J. W., China,
An Interpretation, pp. 49-52.

The Social Environment of the Chinese Schoolgirl 49

the question of providing adequate free educational facilities in
communities where the economic status permits only the barest
necessities of life, with probably insufficient food and clothing to
supply the demands of health, is one that confronts the educator
of Chinese girls to-day. Western standards of social necessities
must be abandoned, and a new system of schoolgirl support
worked out for China, whereby the girl of the poorer classes will
be enabled to study, and at the same time not be too heavy a bur-
den to her family. Probably the economic standards of life
will be raised rapidly in the next decade. But at the present
time, and during the period of change, careful experimentation

DETAILED TABULATION

OF OCCUPATIONS

FATHERS WITH

SALARIES

BELOW $1000

Under
S99

$100
to
199

200
to
299

300

400

500

000

700

800

900

Total

Scholar Class:
Educators
Nurses
Officials
Physicians
Religious Workers

2
13

4
3

1
4

2
1
3

3
1

1
1

1
3

1
4
2

The Artisan Class:
Printers
Tanners

2
1

The Farmer Class:
Farmers

The Merchant Class:
General Business
Merchants

5
3

4
1

1
2

2
3

2
1

17
14

The Servant Class:
Servants

Grand Total

136

and thoughtful effort will be needed to extend to the girl of
the lower economic classes the privilege of an education to which
she has a right. The problem of self support for these girls who
ought to be in school while conditions are changing, is one of the
outstanding problems for educational administrators.

Home Relationships

Usually the girls' schools above the lower primary school are
boarding schools. In order to learn the extent to which the
girls are separated from life in the home, the questions "Do you
live at home or at school?" and "Do you go home every week?"

The Education of Girls in China

were asked, and 1084 answers were received. Of the girls who
replied, 183, or 16.8 per cent, live at home; 21, or 1.9 per cent, live
with relatives; and 880, or 81.1 per cent, live in the dormitories.

OCCUPATIONS AND

$499

500
to
999

1000

to
1499

1500

1999

2000

to
2499

2500

to
2999

3000

to
3499

3500

to
3999

4000

to
4499

4500

to
4999

5000

to
5499

Scholar Class:
Educators
Engineers
Lawyers
Literary Men
Nurses
Officials
Physicians
Relisious Workers
Students

Farmer Class:
Farmers

Artisan Class:
Carpenters
Printers

Skilled Workmen
Tanners

Merchant Class:

General Business Men
Merchants

Military Class:
Military Men

Servant Class:
Servants

5
47

2
1

8
2
3

4
6

4
1

8
10

2
2

1
1

Totals

106

Of those living at the school, 163, or 15 per cent, go home every
week; 98, or 9 per cent, go home every month; 19, or 1.7
per cent, go home sometimes, and 595, or 54.9 per cent, do
not go home.^ We may thus infer that more than half
of the schoolgirls are away from their homes for the entire
school year, except perhaps for brief between-semester visits.
It will be seen from the following tables that the majority of the
girls live at home for the first and second years in the lower primary
school. But from the third year lower primary until they leave
school the greater number live in school dormitories.

The separation of more than one half of the schoolgirls of
China from their homes during the period of education is of grave
import. At best the girls will acquire habits of thought and

1 Five left the answers to visits home blank.

The Social Environment of the Chinese Schoolgirl 51

action different from those people in the home who have little
or no education/ and unless the contacts are sufficiently close
to keep a common sympathy, there must be a strong tendency for

SALARIES OF FATHERS

5500

to
5999

6000

to
6499

6500

to
6900

7000

to
7499

7500

to
7999

8000

to
8499

8500

to
8999

9000 9500

to to
9499 9999

10000

19000

20000

30000

50000

Total

33
1

26
10
51

35
46

220

the girls to become isolated from their homes and communities.
The traditional idea of education separated from life, and the
externally imposed Western education serve to accentuate the
tendency. It is very possible that one reason why the daughters
of the lower social and economic classes are not sent to school
is because the families fear estrangement. Thus, if education is
to be a growth for the girls in school, and at the same time to be an
integral service to society, educators will need to guard against
desocializaion of the girls while in school, and to direct their
attention to the strengthening of the bonds between the school
and home community life.^

1 The large proportion of women in the homes to-day, even among pro-
fessional and business classes, are uneducated. Education thus tends to
separate girls from their mothers.

* See discussion under Curriculum.

The Education of Girls in China

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The Social Environment of the Chinese Schoolgirl 53

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54 The Education of Girls in China

Ambitions

In order to learn what place the girl herself desired to fill in
society, the question "After you have finished school, what work
do you expect to do?" was asked. That this group of school-
girls is selected by ambition for intellectual pursuits seems very
evident from the 992 direct replies received to this question.
In fact, their ambition for study doubtless has been a large factor
in their entrance to and continuation in school. Six hundred
and sixty-one out of the total number expect to become students in
higher institutions; teachers, evangelists, physicians, musicians,
social workers, business women, and nurses. The four ranking
highest in popularity are distributed as follows: 303 desire to
teach, 227 hope for further study, 66 plan to study medicine, 40
plan to become evangelists, and 296 are uncertain. Only one
states that she desires home life. About one half show no
definite recognition of social relationship in their ambition (i.e.,
"students" and "uncertain"), the other half state purposes of
distinct service to society, i.e., those who intend to enter the work
of teaching, medicine, evangelism, and social work.

The limited number of occupations chosen by the girls is prob-
ably due to the fact that very few occupations are as yet open to
women. The stated purpose, however, of so large a number who
plan to become teachers is relatively significant. With the rapid
increase in the number of schools, which will doubtless take place
within the next decade, there will be a great need for trained
teachers. Probably many of the girls who hope to continue
study, expect to teach when graduated. The choice of five of the
girls for business, and of three of the girls for social work, shows
that these fields will probably be developed for women in the near
future. Although only one girl definitely stated her desire for
home life, doubtless the majority of the girls will eventually enter
homes of their own.

It is apparent that although these schoolgirls have expressed
their ambitions to enter these vocations, this fact cannot be taken
as proof that they will do so. Nevertheless, the report does show
the general lines along which they will desire training. The
schools will need to recognize these factors in shaping their
curricula to meet social needs. To select each study so that it
may contribute both to the needs of society and to the desires of
the individual, is an immediate need of education in China today.

CHAPTER III

THE CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS

Age-Distribution

The comparison of age with grade has been a very difficult
undertaking. Although the question was specific in Chinese,
Hterally, "What year of study is this? (state clearly the year of
the lower primary, higher primary, or middle school)" the an-
swers varied greatly. Unfortunately, many of the mission schools
do not follow the general nomenclature of the government, and
thus "high school"^ might mean higher primary or (following the
American nomenclature, literally translated) middle school. It
may be that in some cases "middle school" is used as a term for
higher primary school, although this does not seem likely. In
one institution, "preparatory school, " probably a term for middle
school is reported. It may be, also, that some of the girls do not
know in which grade to consider themselves. In every case,
however, the translation has been as exact as possible, and every
girl whose grade was doubtful is classed "special."

The questions regarding age and grade were answered in a more
or less accurate way by all of the 1176 pupils; of these, however,
6 failed to give their ages, and 216 were unable to give their grades
clearly. Of the 1176, 239 are in the lower primary school, 234 in
the higher primary school, 267 in the middle school,^ 54 in the
preparatory school, 103 in the high school, and 63 in the normal
school. The table on page 56 shows the age-grade distribution
in the twenty-six schools of the study.

The legal school entrance age of a Chinese child is 6; thus the
youngest of the 1170 girls reporting ages in the questionnaires is 6
years old. The oldest is 34. Only six of the 115 girls in the first
grade lower primary are 6 years old; only three are 7 years old.

1 In the third year of high school the age range was from 10 to 20 years
in but 44 cases. The only possible explanation seems to be a misunder-
standing as to the meaning of the question.

2 The reason for the large number of pupils in the higher grades is that
boarding-schools tend to become institutions to which graduates of smaller
schools come for more advanced study.

5 55

The Education of Girls in China

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The Classification of Pupils 57

The median age of the girls in the first year of school is 9.83 years
± .434 P.E. (4.5 P.E.- 1.953).

The median entrance age of the girls in the second year of school
is 11.92 years ± .323 (4.5 P.E. -1.453). In the third year
lower primary, the median age is 13.44 years ± .376 P.E. (4.5
P.E. — 1.692). Thus the median age of the girls in their first
year of school is 9.83 years, or almost four years above the legal
entrance age. After one year of school work, the median age
is 11.92 years, almost six years above the legal entrance age,
and fully two years above the median age of the first year. The
median age of the third year of school is 13.44 years, nearly seven
and one-half years above the legal entrance age, and fully one and
one-half years above the median age of the second year. The
median age of the fourth lower primary is 15.3 years ± .18 P.E.
(4.5 P.E. — .824), over nine years above the legal entrance age,
and over one and one-half years above the median age of the third
year.

In the higher primary school, the median age of the girls in the
first grade is 15.92 years ± .594 P.E. (4.5 P.E. - 2.671) ; of those
in the second, 16.31 years ± .169 (4.5 P.E. — 1.37); and of those
in the third, 18. 64 years ± .304 (4.5 P.E. - 1.37).

The median ages of the middle school are: 17.49 years ± .17
P.E. (4.5 P.E. - .81); 18.73 years ± .3 P.E. (4.5 P.E. - 1.35);
18.88 years ± .344 P.E. (4.5 P.E. - 1.55); and 20.54 years ± .224
(4.5 P.E. — .1). Those of the preparatory school are: 15.42 ±
.398 (4.5 P.E. - 1.79), 15.78 ± .458 (4.5 P.E.- 2.06), 17 ± .475
(4.5 P.E. - 2.14), and 16.5 ± .378 (4.5 P.E. - 1.71) for each suc-
cessive year.

The median ages of the high school are: 16.17 ± .513 P.E.
(4.5 P.E. - 2.31), 17.2 ± .415 (4.5 P.E. - 1.86), 17.1 ± .27
(4.5 P.E. - 1.21), 17.79 ± .328 (4.5 P.E. - 1.48). The median
age of the preparatory normal group is 18.25 ± .42 (4.5 P.E. —
1.89); of the first year normal, 19 ± .985 (4.5 P.E. - 4.43);
of the second year normal, 20.4 ± .41 P.E. (4.5 P.E. - 1.83); of
the third year normal, 19 ± .53 (4.5 P.E. — 2.43); of the special
group, 17.19 ± .169 (4.5 P.E. - .76).

The median age of the total group is 16.39 years ± .08 (4.5 P.E.
-.36).

The 25 percentile is at 14.9 years and the 75 percentile at 18.8
years. That is, 50 per cent of the pupils are between 14.9 years

58 The Education of Girls in China

and 18.8 years old. The table shows that dropping out of schools
does not appear to be a serious factor until the age of eighteen.
Thus it seems probable that the actual school period of the
Chinese boarding-school girl is from about ten until nineteen
years of age.

The data show conclusively that the entrance age of the
majority of Chinese girls is from three to seven years higher than
the legal entrance age. This is probably due to the traditional
hesitancy in allowing girls to study. It is also probably due to
the fact that girls who are away from the centers have no schools
near and so must attend boarding schools, and parents dislike to
send the girls away from home too young. Although the Chinese
girl learns much from life in the home, and obtains a close sym-
pathy with the traditions of family life, yet four, and often more,
of the most valuable educational years are allowed to pass, and
the tools of education, reading and writing, are not mastered until
comparatively late.

The fact that the median age is more than one year later in
each successive grade in the lower primary school may be ex-
plained in three ways. It is possible that because of the rapid
increase of the popularity of girls' schools during the last few years,
the median school entrance age of each year has been earlier.
Again, older girls, entering the second, third, and fourth grades
from outside institutions may materially add to the median age of
these years. Or, it may be that progress is slow, and that for
many pupils time is lost through non-promotion. A study of one
group from year to year would reveal the rate of progress. Ac-
curate school promotion records will give the data required.
Such a study is necessary before the actual waste of time in school
may be ascertained.

/^ The data also show that these girls do not leave school at
fourteen years of age, but remain for eight or nine consecutive
years. There are several reasons why these girls are permitted
to continue their study uninterrupted. In the first place, the
schoolgirls of the higher primary and middle schools are a selected
group, from the homes of the educated classes. Their families
expect them to remain in school. Again, the number of girls
in China who are in school, when compared with the total popula-
tion of girls of school age, is very small, and those in school ap-
preciate the privilege of learning to read. They therefore apply

The Classification of Pupils 59

themselves earnestly to study. In addition to this, the industrial
and commercial worlds are not yet open to women, and do not
offer an immediate opportunity for self-support. The limited
number of callings open to women necessitates preparation in
school. At the same time, government and mission scholarships
make it possible for the schoolgirl to remain at school with a
minimum cost to her parents. Moreover, the educated girl does
not marry before she is 17 or 18 years of age. As a result, she

UOWR PRIMARY SCHOOL
Xst Year

8 29

Bnd Year

1 46

3rd Year
1 30

4th Year

1 3 £3

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let Year

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3rd Year
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4th Year

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ummmmmmmmm

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ezzZ3 Normal Age
■i Over Age

Fig. 5. Age-Grade Distribution (Based on Legal Entrance Age).

60 The Education of Girls in China

may have the years from the time she is old enough to leave home,
until her marriage, free to engage in study.

LOWER PRIMARY SCHOOL
iBt year

14 7 16

2nd Year
7 16 22

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5rd Year

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4th Yeax
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let Year
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2nd Year

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3rd Year
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Fig. 6. Age-Grade Distribution (Based on Medium Entrance age).
Amount of Under-Age/ Normal-Age^ and Over-Age^

From the late school entrance age, and the slow rate of prog-
ress, it follows that the amount of over-age present is extremely

1 "Under-age" is a term applied to the age of pupils in any grade of the
school system who are younger than they would be had they entered at legal
age and progressed one grade each year.

(Notes - and ' on page 61.)

The Classification of Pupils 61

great. In the first grade lower primary, in spite of late entrance,
the proportion of over-age is less than in any other grade; taking
the legal entrance age as a basis, 24.3 per cent of the pupils are of
normal age and 75.6 per cent are over-age. In the second grade,
2.1 per cent are normal and 97.8 per cent are over-age. In the
third grade, 3.2 per cent are of normal age and 96.7 per cent are
over-age. In the fourth grade, .8 per cent are normal and 99. 1 per
cent are over-age. The same conditions hold for the higher
primary school, although in the last two years the percentage of
over-age is slightly less. In the first year of the higher primary,
2.3 per cent are normal age and 97.6 per cent over-age; in the
second year of the higher primary, 4.7 per cent are of normal age
and 95.2 per cent are over-age. In the third year of the higher
primary, 4.7 per cent are normal age and 95.2 per cent are over-
age. The first under-age is shown in the first year of the middle
school, and is present to some extent in each of the four years.
In the first year of the middle school, 1.3 per cent are under-age,
8.1 per cent are normal, and 90.5 per cent are over-age. In the
second year, 1.0 per cent are under-age, 4.1 per cent are normal,
and 94.8 per cent are over-age. In the third year, 10.5 per cent
are under-age, 10.5 per cent normal, and 78.9 per cent are over-
age. In the fourth year, 3.4 per cent are under-age, 1.7 per cent
are normal, and 94.8 per cent over-age.

2 "Normal-age" is a term applied to the age of pupils in any grade of the
school system who are in the grade and of the age they would be had they
entered at legal age. It is customary, however, to consider both six and seven
as ages of normal entrance. Cf. Strayer, G. D., Some Problems in City Admin-
istration, pp. 70, 76, 77.

' "Over-age" is a term applied to the age of pupils in any grade of the school
system who are older than they would be had they entered at legal age, and
progressed one grade each year.

The Education of Girls in China

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The Classification of Pupils

PERCENTAGE OF UNDER-AGE, NORMAL-AGE AND OVER-AGE PUPILS ON
THE BASIS OF LEGAL ENTRANCE AGE

Under-Age

Normal-Age

Over-Age

1 Lower Primary

24.3%

75.6%

2 Lower Primary

2.1%

97.8%

3 Lower Primary

3.2%

96.7%

4 Lower Primary

.8%

99.1%,

1 Higher Primary

2.3%

97.6%

2 Higher Primary

4.7%

95.2%

3 Higher Primary

4.7%

95.2%,

1 Middle School

1.3%

8.1%

90.5%

2 Middle School

1.0%

4.1%

04.8%

3 Middle School

10.5%

78.9%

4 Middle School

3.4%

1.7%

94 . 8%

Total

1.0%

4.7%

94.1%

If, instead of on the basis of the legal age of school entrance,
the median entrance age, with the age just one year older, is
taken as a basis, the amount of over-age is as shown on page 64.

PERCENTAGE OF UNDER-AGE, NORMAL-AGE AND OVER-AGE PUPILS ON
THE BASIS OF MEDIAN ENTRANCE AGE

Under-Age

Normal-Age

Over-Age

1 Lower Primary

37.8%

18.9%

48.2%

2 Lower Primary

14.9%

38.2%

46.8%

3 Lower Primary

12.9%

25.8%

61.2%

4 Lower Primary

4.8%

31.4%

63.7%

1 Higher Primary

9.3%

20.9%

69.7%

2 Higher Primary

10.3%

31.1%

58.4%

3 Higher Primary

9.7%

21.4%

59.5%

1 Middle School

21.6%

37.8%

41.6%

2 Middle School

18.5%

38.1%

43.2%

3 Middle School

42,1%

26.3%

31.5%

4 Middle School

15.7%

45.6%

38.6%

Total

15.6%

31.4%

52.7%

Here again over-age is present to a marked degree. In the
first year lower primary, 14, or 37.8 per cent, are under-age, only
7, or 18.9 per cent, are of normal age, and 16, or 43.2 per cent,
are over-age. For the next four years, the degree of over-age
grows steadily larger: 7, or 14.9 per cent, in the second year
lower primary are under-age, 18, or 38.2 per cent, normal age,
and 46.8 per cent over-age; in the third year lower primary, 4, or
12.9 per cent, are under-age, 8, or 25.8 per cent, normal age, and
61.2 per cent over-age; in the fourth year lower primary, 6, or 4.8
per cent, are under-age, 39, or 31.4 per cent, normal age, and 79,
or 63.7 per cent, over-age; in the first year higher primary, 8, or

The Education of Girls in China

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The Classification of Pupils 65

9.3 per cent, are under-age, 18, or 20.9 per cent, normal age,
and 60, or 69.7 per cent, over-age. In the second year higher pri-
mary, the fact that the eighteen or nineteen-year-old girls are
leaving school affects the proportion of over-age. Here 11, or
10.3 per cent, are under-age, 33, or 31.1 per cent, normal, and
62, or 58.4 per cent, over-age. In third year higher primary, 9.7 per
cent are under-age, 21.4 per cent normal, and 25, or 59.5 per
cent, over-age. In the middle school in the first year, 16, or
21.6 per cent, are under-age, 28, or 37.8 per cent, normal, and
41.6 per cent over-age; in the second year, 18, or 18.5 per cent,
are under-age, 37, or 38.1 per cent, normal, and 42, or 43.2 per
cent, over-age; in the third year, 16, or 42.1 per cent, are under-
age, 10, or 26.3 per cent, normal, and 12, or 31.5 per cent, over-
age; in the fourth year, 9, or 15.7 per cent, are under-age, 26,
or 45.6 per cent, normal, and 22, or 38.6 per cent, over-age. In
the middle school, the effect of the leaving age is naturally
very marked, since the normal age on the basis of the median age
of the first middle grade is 18 or 19 years of age.

Thus it is evident that even upon the basis of the four years
late median age of the first year of school, the succeeding years of
school contain a large number of over-age pupils. It may be con-
cluded, therefore, that the schools at the present time are dealing
with a group of older girls in the lower school grades, and that
these girls will have only eight or nine consecutive years in school.
To enable the pupils to make the best possible use of this limited
time, each should be given tasks that challenge her best effort.
Older pupils who will spend only one or two years in school, and
who have learned to cook and sew at home will need a very differ-
ent course from young pupils in the same grade, who have never
learned the essentials of home-keeping, and who will probably re-
main at school for ten or twelve years. Individual freedom in the
choice of courses, especially on the part of those who are older, is
important in all grades. Younger pupils who have proved their
ability should be encouraged to progress rapidly through the
system, and thus secure ample time for preparation for the pro-
fessions. When it is found that a large proportion of the pupils
take longer than the scheduled time to complete certain courses,
adjustment of the courses to the ability of the girls should be
made. This will necessitate flexible grade divisions with frequent
promotion, special rooms for over-age and under-age pupils and a

66 The Education of Girls in China

wide variation of subjects.^ Adequate solutions to the various
phases of this problem can be worked out only by conscious
experiment and comparison of results in China.

' For efforts to meet similar situations in America, cf. Cubberley, E. P.,
Public School Administration, Chap. XVII-XVIII; Strayer, G. D., Some
Problems in City School Administration, Chap. VI, VIII, XII.

CHAPTER IV
THE SUBJECTS IN THE CURRICULUM

The studies reported by the girls in the schools closely follow
the courses outlined in the government and mission curricula.

In the First Year Lower Primary, 34 of the 37 girls reported
weekly schedules. The subjects reported by the highest number
of girls are : Chinese reading, by 32 of the 34 girls of that grade
reporting; arithmetic, 30; singing, 27; English and Bible, each 26;
geography and writing, each 23. English grammar is reported by
4 of the girls. In addition to the 26 reporting Bible, 18 report
moral training as a part of their weekly schedules; 18 also report
physical training. Of the newer subjects hand-work is reported
by 3, and stories by 1.

The proportion of time spent on each subject is also given in the
schedule. Whenever the periods given were irregular, or the
time specified uncertain, the number of hours is listed under
"' Not Reporting." Thus the proportion of time is approximately
accurate. Five hours per week is spent on arithmetic by 20 of
the girls, on English by 22, on geography by 14, and on writing by
17. Bible is studied 3 hours a week by 14. Eleven girls spend
2 hours a week on physical training.

SUBJECTS OF STUDY— FIRST LOWER PRIMARY

Number of Recitation

Not Re-

Total

Periods per Week

porting

Chinese Reading

Arithmetic

Singing

Bible

English

Geography

Writing

Moral Training

Physical Training

Composition

Grammar

Drawing

Hand-work

Botany

English Writing

History

Music

Stories

Number of girls in First Lower Primary, 37; number reporting schedules, 34.

The Education of Girls in China

In the Second Year Lower Primary the subjects are practically
the same. Singing is reported by 41 of the 45 girls; arithmetic by
39; Chinese reading by 39; geography by 37; writing by 37; Bible
by 36; English by 35; drawing by 29; and physical training by
29. Three report hand-work, 2 report manual arts, and 2 report
stories. The proportion of time is given as follows: 16 spend 3
hours on arithmetic; 25 spend 5 hours on Bible; 14 spend 3 hours,
and 8 spend 5 hours on Chinese reading. Sixteen spend 2 hours
on drawing; 26 spend 5 hours on English; 18 spend 2 hours on
geography; 14, 2 hours on grammar; 14, 2 hours on moral train-
ing; 19, 2 hours on physical training; 28, 2 hours on singing;
and 28, 5 hours on writing.

SUBJECTS OF STUDY

—SECOND LOWER

PRIMARY

Number of Recitation

Not Re-

Total

Periods Per Week

porting

Singing

Arithmetic

Chinese Reading

Geography

Writing

Bible

English

Drawing

Physical Training

Moral Training

Grammar

Composition

Botany

Hand -work

]

Manual Arts

Stories

History

Letter Writing

Music

Number of girls in Second Lower Primary, 47; number reporting sechedules, 45.

In the Third Year Lower Primary arithmetic, reported by 28
of the 31 girls; Chinese reading, reported by 30; Bible, reported
by 29; geography, reported by 25; physical training, reported by
21; and writing, reported by 24, lead the subjects. Only 13 of
the 31 girls report English in this grade. Hand-work and manual
training are reported by 4, sanitation by 6, and sewing by 5. The
proportion of time on each of these studies is given by only a
scattering few.

The studies of the Fourth Year Lower Primary were reported
by 118 out of the total of 124 girls: 111 are studying Chinese
reading; 107, arithmetic; 103, geography; 98, Bible; 75, writing;

Subjects in the Curriculum 69

SUBJECTS OF STUDY— THIRD LOWER PRIMARY

Number of Recitation

Not Re-

Total

Periods Per Week

porting

Chinese Reading

1.5

Bible

Arithmetic

Geography

Writing

Physical Training

Enghsh

Moral Training

Singing

Drawing

History

Sanitation

Sewing

Ethics

Manual Training

Art

Classics

Music

Natural Science

Composition

English Writing

Hand-work

Mental Arithmetic

Piano

Number of girls in Third Lower Primary, 31; number reporting schedules, 31.

SUBJECTS OF STUDY— FOURTH LOWER

PRIMARY

Number of Recitation

9 10

Not Re-

Total

Periods Per Week

porting

Chinese Reading

111

Arithmetic

107

Geography

103

Bible

Writing

English

History

Drawing

Physical Education

Singing

Grammar

Composition

Moral Training

Sewing

General Science

Ethics

Classics

Sanitation

Essay

Letter Writing

Hand- work

Music

Physics

Hygiene

Art

Recitations

Chemistry

Foreign History

Piano

Domestic Science

Manual Training

Mental Arithmetic

Number of girls in First Higher Primary, 124; number reporting schedules, 118.

The Education of Girls in China

72, English; 65, history; 58, physical education; 58, drawing;
and 57, singing; 23, sewing; 16, sanitation; 13, hand-work; 1,
manual training; and 1, domestic science.

Although the period schedule varies from 1 to 5 periods in most
of the subjects, and for arithmetic, Chinese, and English from 1
to 10 periods, usually arithmetic, Chinese reading, English and
writing are accorded 5 recitation periods per week; Bible, draw-
ing, geography, history, physical training, and sewing, 2 periods;
and sanitation, domestic science and hand-work, 1 period per
week. Twenty-three give drawing 2 periods per week; 21, 1
period per week.

In the First Year Higher Primary, the total number, 86, re-
ported weekly schedules of recitation periods: 73 are studying
arithmetic; 73, Chinese reading; 72, geography; 69, Bible; 68,

SUBJECTS OF STUDY— FIRST HIGHER

PRIMARY

Number of Recitation

Not Re-

Total

Periods Per Week

porting

Arithmetic

Chinese Reading

Geography

Bible

History

English

Physical Training

Singing

Drawing

Writing

Composition

Sewing

Letter Writing

Music

Essay

General Science

Hand-work
Art

1
2

1
1

2
2

18
17

Moral Training

Classics

Sanitation

Ethics

Physiology

Mencius

Mandarin

Religion

Five Books

Rhetoric

Map Drawing

Agriculture

Physics

Number of girls in Second Higher Primary, 86; number reporting schedules, 86.

history; and 63, English; 34, sewing; 18, hand-work; 8, sanitation;
and 4, Mandarin.^ Thirty-one spend 2 recitation hours per

^ The language which is most universally spoken in China, and which will
probably become the national language.

Subjects in the Curriculum

week on arithmetic, and 23, 5 recitation hours on Chinese reading.
English and sanitation are practically 5-period subjects; Bible
and geography are 3-period-per-week subjects and history, a
2-period-per-week subject. Sewing and hand-work are reported
as 1-period-per-week subjects.

The total number, 106 girls, in the Second Year Higher Primary
grade reported their weekly recitations: 102 study mathematics
(94 arithmetic, 7 mathematics, 1 algebra); 98 study Chinese
reading; 94, history; 90, geography; 89, English; 88 Bible; and
63, physical training; 31, sewing; 20, sanitation; and 9, hand-work.
The study of Mandarin is reported by 10 girls. Subjects for the
most part given 5 periods per week are arithmetic, Chinese
reading, and English; those given 3 periods per week are Bible,
geography, and sanitation. Mandarin is usually given 2 periods
per week. One girl reports sewing 2 periods per week; and 16, 1
p3riod. History and hand-work are reported as 1-period-per-
week subjects.

SUBJECTS OF

STUDY— SECOND

HIGHER

PRIMARY

Number of Recitation

Blanks

Total

Periods Per Week

Chinese Reading

Arithmetic

History

Geography

EngUsh

Bible

Physical Training

General Science

Writing

Music

Singing

Sewing

Drawing

Composition

Classics

Essays

Sanitation

Art

Ethics

Moral Training

Romanized

Mandarin

Hand-work

Manual Training

Letter Writing

Physiology

Mathematics

Grammar

Physics

Menciua

Piano

Rhetoric

Algebra

Five Books

Number in grade, 106; number reporting schedules, 106.
6

The Education of Girls in China

In the Third Year Higher Primary, all of the girls, 42 in number,
report weekly schedules: 42 report the study of history; 41 report
mathematics (29 arithmetic, 1 algebra, 11 mathematics); 41,
Bible, and English; 38, Chinese reading; 28, physical training;
21, writing; 20, geography and singing. Eleven study Mandarin;
12, hygiene; 12, hand-work; and 3, sanitation. Five periods are
usually given to arithmetic, Chinese reading, and English; 3
periods to hygiene and sanitation; 2 periods to geography and
history. Thirteen recited Bible 3 periods per week, and 12, 5
periods per week.

SUBJECTS OF STUDY— THIRD HIGHER

PRIMARY

Number of Reritation

Not Re-

Total

Periods Per Week

porting

History

Bible

English

Chinese Reading

Arithmetic

Physical Training

Writing

Geography

Singing

Music

Classics

Composition

Hand-work

Hygiene

Essay

Mandarin

Mathematics

Romanized

Grammar

Sanitation

Biology

Algebra

Drawing

Ethics

General Science

Moral Training

Physical Geography

Letter Writing

Number of girls in grade, 42; number reporting schedules, 42.

The studies most frequently reported by the pupils in the
primary schools are arithmetic, English, Chinese reading and
writing, Bible, geography, and history. These subjects are
studied, in every grade, although history is not studied by a
large number until the first year higher primary. Five recitation
periods each week are usually given to arithmetic, English,
Chinese reading and writing; 2 or 3 periods to Bible, history, and
geography. Physical training is reported by a large number in
the lower primary grades, but drops to a secondary place in the

Subjects in the Curriculum

last four years. The subjects of hygiene and sanitation, sewing,
hand-work, and manual training are studied by relatively few
pupils, ^j

The schedules of the girls in the four years of the middle school
follow in order.

SUBJECTS OF STUDY— FIRST

MIDDLE

SCHOOL

Number of Recitation

Not Re-

Total

Periods Per Week

porting

Bible

Algebra

History

Singing

English

Physical Training

Chinese Literature

Composition

Grammar

Writing

Drawing

Essay

Arithmetic

Classics

Reading

Music

French

Biology

Education

Physiology

Chinese History

Chemistry

Sanitation

General Science

House Management

Physics

Piano

Sewing

Botany

Geography

Calculus

Cooking

Domestic Science

Astronomy

Household Arts

Mandarin

Geometry

General History

Letter Writing

Moral Training

Biography

English Composition

Expression

Mencius

Number in grade, 74; number reporting schedules, 74.

74 The Education of Girls in China

SUBJECTS OF STUDY— SECOND MIDDLE SCHOOL

Number of Recitation

Not Re-

Total

Periods Per Week

porting

English

Bible

History

Physical Training

Chinese Literature

Algebra

Composition

Singing

Geometry

Grammar

Physical Geography

Classics

Writing

Drawing

Reading

Physiology

Essay Writing

Education

Chemistry

Geology

Music

House Management

Mandarin

Arithmetic

History of Education

Botany

General History

Piano

General Science

Calculus

American Literature

Domestic Science

Astronomy

French

Psychology

Teaching of Drawing

Cooking

Chinese History

Sewing

Geography

Moral Training

Sanitation

Normal Training

Conversation

Embroidery

History of Literatiire

Oratory

Zoology

Subjects in the Curriculum

SUBJECTS OF STUDY— THIRD MIDDLE SCHOOL

Number of Recitation

Not Re-

Total

Periods Per Week

porting

Bible

English

Chinese Literature

Essay

Singing

Geometry

History

Writing

Classics

Psychology

Chemistry

Composition

Physical Training

General Science

Physiology

Chinese Reading

Piano

House Management

Mandarin

Physics

Ancient Literature

Algebra

General History

Zoology

Arithmetic

English History

Music

Sanitation

Astronomy

Grammar

Hand-work

History of Bible

Moral Training

Physical Geography

Trigonometry

Drawing

Botany

Geography

Hygiene

Letter Writing

Sewing

EngHsh Stories

Debate

Number of girls in grade, 38; number reporting schedules, 37.

The Education of Girls in China

SUBJECTS OF STUDY— FOURTH MIDDLE SCHOOL

Recitation

Not Re-

Total

Periods Per Week

porting

English

Chinese Literature

Bible

Chemistry-

History

Mandarin

Composition

Essay Writing

Classics

Grammar

Methods of Teaching

Geometry

Music

Ethics

Arithmetic

Algebra

Hand-work

Normal Training

Moral Training

Astronomy

Geography

Drawing

Foreign History

Conversation

Number of girls in grade, 58; number reporting schedules, 54.

In the higher schools, algebra, geometry, and mathematics
largely replace arithmetic; Chinese literature replaces Chinese
reading. The sciences of biology, botany, chemistry, and
physics replace geography; English and the Bible continue
throughout. The tendency toward the newer subjects of sewing,
household arts, household management, sanitation and hygiene
may be traced in these schools as well as in the lower ones, and
occasionally professional educational subjects are introduced in
the last three years.

Subjects in the Curriculum

The schedules of the students in normal preparatory and normal
schools are reported as follows:

SUBJECTS OF STUDY— NORMAL SCHOOL PREPARATORY

Recitation
Periods Per Week

Not Re-
porting

Total

Arithmetic

Chinese Literature

Geography

Music

Physical Training

Drawing

Writing

Composition

History

Moral Training

Sewing

Chemistry

Education

Essay Writing

Hand-work

History of Literature

Zoology

Number of girls in grade, 6; number reporting schedules, 6.

SUBJECTS OF STUDY— FIRST NORMAL

Recitation Periods Per Week

Total

Composition

Arithmetic

Chinese Reading

Music

Bible

Geography

History of Education

Drawing

History

Classics

Physical Training

Psychology

Methods of Study

English

Methods of Teaching

General Science

Hand-work

Moral Training

Algebra

Botany

Chinese Literature

Physiology

Sewing

Writing

■4

Kindergarten

English History

Education

Mother Play

Practice Teaching Bible

Practice Teaching Geography

Number of girls in grade, 17; number reporting schedules, 17

The Education of Girls in China

SUBJECTS OF STUDY— SECOND NORMAL

Recitation

Not Re-

Total

Periods Per Week

porting

Chinese Reading

Physical Training

Arithmetic

English

History

Education

Chemistry

Geography

Composition

Bible

Music

Practice Teaching

Drawing

Hand-work

Moral Training

Sewing

Chinese Literature

Writing

Singing

Mandarin

Grammar

Physics

Physiology

Psychology

General Science

Essay

Botany

Kindergarten

Mencius

Methods of Teaching

Zoology

Number of girls in grade, 29; number reporting schedules, 28.

SUBJECTS OF STUDY— THIRD NORMAL

Recitation Periods Per Week

Not
Reporting

Total

Chemistry

Physical Training

Sewing

Education

History

English

Music

Chinese Reading

Bible

Composition

Household Management

Magazine

Arithmetic

Geography

I-etter Writing

Hand-work

Poetry

Writing

Chinese Literature

Essay Writing

Grammar

Singing

Zoiilogy

Classics

Drawing

Home-work

Mandarin

Moral Training

Physics

Number of girls in grade, 11; number reporting schedules, 11.

Subjects in the Curriculum

In the normal schools the subjects of the lower schools are
reviewed. To these education, history of education, kinder-
garten, methods of study, methods of teaching, practice teaching,
practice teaching of geography and Bible and psychology are
added. The data from the Normal Schools are inadequate for a
definite study.

IMPORTANT SUBJECTS OF THE CURRICULUM-
SCHOOLGIRLS

-REPORTED BY 1119

Periods

Number of Recitation

Not Re-

Totals

Periods Per Week

ported

Liberal Arts Subjects:

Chinese Classics and

Literature

124

154

100

296

297

1135

English

419

232

986

Mathematics

164

183

359

190

1043

Bible

142

219

161

236

890

History

260

128

148

761

Geography

184

141

108

164

671

Science

192

452

Chinese Composition

211

Practical Arts Subjects:

Sewing

156

Hand-work

148

Sanitation

Domestic Science

Hygiene

Manual Training

Cooking

Professional Educational

Subjects:

Psychology

Education

(14

20)

Practice Teaching

History of Education

Methods of Teaching

Methods of Study

Kindergarten Training

When the courses of study are considered as a unit, it becomes
apparent that out of the 1119 girls reporting, there are 1135/
reports on Chinese reading, classics and literature; 986, or 88.1
per cent, report English and grammar; 890, or 86.7 per cent,
Bible; 1042, or 93.2 per cent, mathematics; 761, or 68 per cent,
history; 671, or 59.9 per cent, geography; 452, or 40.3 per cent,
science; 302, or 26.9 per cent, domestic science in its various
phases; 128, or 11.4 per cent, hygiene and sanitation; and 115, or
10.2 per cent, subjects in normal training.

1 Two hundred and twenty-six report Chinese classics, 521 report Chinese
reading, and 388 report Chinese literature.

80 The Education of Girls in China

Mathematics, Chinese, EngHsh, Bible, history, and science
are thus the predominating subjects. Unquestionably each one
of these supplies in some degree a demand of society. Arith-
metic, Chinese — the mother tongue of the pupils — religion,
science, and history, are all integral parts of the life experience
of every Chinese girl. English is an important medium in all
higher education to-day. Moreover, among the business and
professional classes it is desired for intercourse with powerful
foreigners who live in every important city.

LIBBRAL ARTS StrBJSCTS

Il(ath«matlccl043 Pupils

ISngllah-9Se Vuplla

■ Bltile-890 Pupil*

■Ul«tory-7Sl Pupil*

■Ceogr»ph/-671 pupllB

■Sclenca-4S2 Puplla

IHBa^iBChlness Conpoaltlon-ail Pupils
PRACTICAL ARTS SUBJECTS

■■■■■ 8awing-lS6 pupils
■■H^H Band«ork-143 puplla
^^■Sanltstlon-es Puplla
■■Domsatle Sclenos-7» Pupils
■Byglana-39 Puplla
■U&nual Tralnlng-15 Puplla
I Cooklng-4 Puplla

PR0FBS3I0SAL SDOCATIOSAL StIBJBCTS

■9syohology33 Pupils

ME<lucatlon-31 Pupils

B Practice Teaohlng-22 Pupils

■Hletcry cf Eduoatlcn-11 Pupils

matlicds of Taachlng-7 puplla

lllathcila of study? puplla

I Elndargarttn Tralnlng-4 Pupils

Fig. 7. Important Subjects of the Curriculum.

In an analysis of the curriculum, however, it is evident that the
schedule, especially in the lower grades, is very heavily loaded.
The study of the Chinese language — character reading, writing
and composition — is extremely difficult in spite of the fact that it
is the mother tongue of the pupils. (^ Ability to read the literature
which is considered essential for scholars, or even ability to read
the newspapers and magazines, is rarely acquired without years
of intensive work. iTo this subject are added, even in the lower
primary school, history, science, mathematics and foreign lan-
guage. In the mission schools Bible completes the schedule.
The mitigating features of the situation are that the girls in

Subjects in the Curriculum 81

school at the present time are from four to six years older than
the normal ages in the lower grades, and that they are probably a
highly selected group intellectually as well as socially. It is to be
expected, however, that the work will be too severe for the
younger group of perhaps average intelligence which will come
into the schools in increasing numbers. To relieve this over-
loading, the requirements in Chinese may be modified,* parts of
arithmetic and higher mathematics omitted, since the theory of
formal discipline can no longer justify their continuance as a
subject for study in the lower grades, large portions of Western
history supplanted by history of the nations of the Far East, and
science applied to daily experience. To evaluate every portion
of every subject in the curriculum; to discard the useless and to
keep only that part which is applicable to the lives of the Chinese
schoolgirls; to experiment, to test the results of every change, and
to adopt only the best, — is an imperative need of education for
girls in China to-day.

The reduction of the present course of study is made more
necessary to provide time for the important subjects, now neg-
lected, which should be emphasized in the curriculum. Since
only 36.4 per cent of the girls are studying subjects which relate
directly either to the home or to community life,^ since the
majority of the girls live away from home most of the years they
attend school thus having little opportunity to obtain training in
household science, and since each of the girls will become a part of
some social group after completing the school course, there is
evident need for a closer relation of the curriculum to immediate
home and community life. With the present system, malad-
justments in family and village are frequent. Mothers-in-law
often dread the new order of courtship by which a son brings into
the home a Western trained daughter-in-law who cannot cook
and despises housework. Many schoolgirls dread marriage as a
" prison-house, " and welcome any plan which will free them from
the responsibility and meaningless drudgery of housekeeping.
In one village the daughter so evidently disapproved her mother's

' Chinese educators have already given much attention to this subject, and
have introduced readers containing selections from literature and the classics.
Many are also working upon the problem of the character.

2 Only 26.3 per cent are studying domestic science, 10.8 per cent, hygiene and
sanitation, and none, sociology or civics.

82 The Education of Girls in China

way of doing things that the mother broke up the home, sent all
of the children to boarding school, and went herself to a women's
training school. The benefits derived from a school curriculum
which separates pupils from life and gives neither appreciation of
nor training in the fundamental processes of home keeping may-
be definite and measurable, but they are accompanied by great
and unnecessary evils.

Furthermore, such a curriculum is directly opposed to the trend
of modern educational theory and practice.' The worth of any
curriculum to-day is judged, not by precision and uniformity of
subject matter, but by its contribution to the life and growth of
each child as an individual in society. This demands that
"nature and society Hve in the schoolroom" and that the "forms
and tools of learning" be "subordinated to the substance of
experience. "1 This may be obtained by making the home and
the community vital factors in the experience of the pupil during
the years spent at school. The introduction of courses in house-
hold subjects with projects which bring the girls into close contact
with their homes, and courses in sociology, based on experimental
studies of Chinese villages, is both possible and necessary in the
socialization of the curriculum. >

Courses are also needed to prepare women to render definite
service under the changing condition of Chinese society. The
Chinese schoolgirls have signified their purposes to become physi-
cians, nurses, and teachers. The rise of the normal schools,
and the introduction of professional subjects in the secondary
schools, show that the demand for preparation for teaching as a
vocation is becoming already insistent. It will not be long be-
fore the need for training in other vocations will be equally im-
perative. It is true that complete preparation for vocations and
professions cannot be accompUshed in secondary schools. On
the other hand, however, courses that will help in the first few
years of teaching, community aids in sanitation, hygiene, nursing,
and domestic economy are possible in every higher primary and
middle school program. An essential part of the secondary
school curriculum is to give each girl a broad foundation of
knowledge and thought. But it is equally important that it en-

1 Dewey, School and Society, p. 56.

Subjects in the Curriculum 83

able her to prepare for some phase of effective social helpfulness
whenever she is compelled to leave school.

' The fundamental reorganization of the curricula to provide
more reasonable programs, closer relation to community and home
life, and more definite preparation for service, in order that the
girls in the schools may receive an adequate opportunity for
study, is an immediate task for educators in China. \

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Summary of Results

The education of girls in China has been a definite, compar-
atively conscious process for many centuries. Among the upper
classes the more fortunate women have been accomplished, and
have learned to read and to write. Some have become artists
and great scholars. But the majority of women, from ancient
times down to the present day, have known little of the world
outside of the inner courts of their own homes.

For over nine hundred and ninety out of every thousand girls
in China to-day, education means obedience to older members of
the family and self-training to compliance in all requests.N For
many of these it means also learning to spin linen from flax and
silk from cocoons, to weave cotton, to make garments for every
member of the family : garments of single thickness for summer,
and of double thickness padded with cotton for winter; to supply
hats for the men and shoes for all, to cook food with a stubble fire,
to manage a family of six on an income below a living wage.
There is little time, little thought, and no opportunity for learning
to read.

( The first school for girls which introduced Western subjects was
started by a missionary in 1843. Very gradually the idea of
schools for girls permeated the nation. In 1876, the increase of
numbers attending began to become apparent. In 1898 the
first school under Chinese management was opened as a private
institution. In 1907 the government established a system of
schools for the education of girls. But since the first revolution
in 1911, there has been a phenomenal rise in the number of girls
attending mission, private and government schools, and institu-
tions are unable to accommodate those who apply for admission
In spite of this fact, however, probably fewer than ten in one'
thousand girls are attending school. It is estimated that eight
out of the ten are in the first four years of the course. Approxi-
mately seven girls out of ten thousand are attending the higher
84

Conclusion 85

primary school, and three in ten thousand are pursuing a course
in the middle school. These girls are in day and boarding in-
stitutions situated for the most part in great cities along trade
routes.

From the study of one thousand one hundred and seventy-six
of the pupils of the boarding schools it may be concluded that the
schoolgirls of China to-day are a very highly selected class. Their
fathers are usually professional and business men whose incomes
are between $500 and S600 Mexican per year. Over one half of
the girls live in dormitories, and thus are separated from their
homes, except for brief visits, during their entire course in higher
primary, middle and normal schools. In the investigation of the
ambitions of this group it was found that almost one third desire
to teach.

The majority of the girls are from ten to eighteen years of
age. They enter school from four to six years older than the
legal entrance age. In the first year of the lower primary school,
and in every year thereafter, a large proportion are over-age.
While in school, the girls study Chinese literature, composition
and writing; mathematics, and English, history, geography, and
science and in mission schools, Bible. Usually five recitation
periods each week are given to the five subjects, four periods to
history, and three periods to the last three subjects. A few girls
report one or two recitations each week in sewing, household arts,
hygiene and sanitation. ^In the middle school some give time to
professional educational subjects^

Recommendations

In view of the vast number of girls still unreached by the
schools, a definite program for securing universal school attend-
ance needs to be worked out by the authorities in government,
private and mission educational systems. ) If feasible, these three
agencies should follow one central plan adopted by all, after a
careful, extensive survey of the situation in each province.
Such a provincial survey and plan would include a census of the
population of children of school age and available schools with the
present school attendance, and would definitely endeavor to reach
large, now untouched geographical areas.

Where union provincial plans are impossible, surveys of local
cities and villages, showing the distribution of population, occupa-

86 The Education of Girls in China

tion of citizens, wealth, present school attendance, and classes
from which students come, carried on by voluntary associations
of resident educators, may be accomplished in many educational
centers. Some of the results which might be expected from such
a survey are: a definite plan for providing educational facilities
for now neglected districts, a basis for estimating a feasible
scheme for financing the schools, and systematic propaganda
among all social classes which will enlist their enthusiastic support
and secure a consciousness of the possibility of and desire for the
education of every child. That there is increasing interest in the
problem of education is evident from the sudden rise of the
number of pupils in school. This interest should be utilized in
furthering the rapid extension of schools in the democracy of the
East.

y^ It is evident from the investigation of this study that special
attention must be given to attendance problems in farmer,
artisan and laborer classes. It is necessary that some arrange-
ment be made for the support of girls in school in order that the
daughters of these great untouched, poverty-burdened classes be
given opportunity for education. Free schools are not yet
provided, for there is no national system of taxation for educa-

^ tion,^ and the sources of revenue are entirely inadequate to finance
the needed rapid increase in the number of schools. At the same
time, the extreme poverty of great masses of people will doubtless
prevent them from supporting either the schools or the children
while at school. This problem of finance is one of the greatest
which faces educators in China to-day, and will continue until
the economic status of the people be raised by the wide use of
natural resources, and until the public demand and furnish
education for all children.

( There is also definite need that educational institutions find
some way by which the pupils during their years of education ^
may be brought into close contact with both home and society, y
Wherever possible, the pupils attending school should live at home
or with relatives. Home projects in household work, in sanita-
tion, in entertainment through synopses of history, geography or
literature lessons, and home reading of the newspapers, should be
definitely planned and executed. Parents and friends may be

1 Kuo, P. W., Chinese Education System, pp. 133, 147.

Conclusion 87

invited often to the schools and made the guests of groups, classes
or the whole school. For girls who must live at the school, a
"model house" in which home problems may be carried on should
be an essential of institutional equipment. For older pupils, and
those in the higher primary or middle grades, projects which will
involve study in neighboring villages will give perspective to stu-
dents. By these, and many other methods and by constantly
growing experimentation the girls may be kept vital factors in
society while at school.

Moreover, there is need for courses which give definite prepara-
tion for some vocation. The changing social order already de-
mands new types of education for the Chinese girl. Schools are
opened in rapidly increasing numbers. For every school a teacher
is needed, and these teachers must be trained. To the end that
they may not drop into a dull routine, bounded by tradition and
limited by the class-room walls, the girls who have expressed a
desire to enter this profession should study the principles of
education, and have opportunity for supervised practice before
leaving school. This will at least awaken in them a professional
consciousness, ^nd make growth in service a probability. In
many communities there is also need for the social service or
evangelistic worker. Schools may introduce courses in religion
and civic betterment that will definitely fit girls for this work in
villages and cities. Business is beginning to make a place for
women, and business courses may supply the need of some girls.
Probably special schools for advanced study in social service,
commerce, and industry will be developed later, as they have been
for education. Until vocational schools are within the reach of
every girl, courses which will train girls for the work they must do
are a necessity, that girls who leave school before they reach the
higher professional schools will be fitted to render some immediate
contribution to their communities.

In order that time may not be wasted, a universal entrance
age at six or seven years should be secured through propaganda
and law enforcement. A close articulation of the systems of
government, private and mission schools to provide efficient
transfer and the adjustment of each year schedule of study to the
actual ability of the pupils. This will involve an attendance
department (perhaps working under a union committee), which
will seek to stimulate public opinion on school attendance, which

88 The Education of Girls in China

will investigate absences and visit the homes of non-attending
children of school age. It will involve a comparison and evolu-
tion of the various courses of study throughout each city, and offi-
cial recognition of every school. It will necessitate the careful
study of the progress^ of every pupil and class, and the constant
change of curriculum requirements. There will be need for ex-
tremely flexible grade divisions, frequent promotions, wide indi-
vidual choice of subject matter with special rooms for those who
are either especially gifted or backward.

Instead of the overloaded and artificial curriculum of Chinese
reading and writing — the mastery of which is in itself a gigantic
task — plus the Western subjects of arithmetic, foreign language,
Bible, history, geography and science, a curriculum of studies
fitted to the needs of the Chinese girl is imperative. Let the
traditional divisions of the curriculum be questioned, and let only
those things be taught which the pupil, the community, or the
nation demand for physical and spiritual well-being and growth.
If the schoolgirl must read books, magazines and newspapers,
teach her the characters used in their vocabularies. If for effi-
ciency in the school or home, in cooking or household management,
she should understand and apply the laws of heat, light or food
changes, direct her to her environment for the problems which she
will meet daily in the process of living. She would keep herself in
good health : discuss with her its laws, and make the practice of
these laws an essential to successful completion of the course.
If she has an opportunity to assist in cleaning up a house or a
village, help her to understand and execute the principles of
sanitation. If she desires to speak with foreign people, or to read
a foreign literature, teach her those words and phrases which she
will need. When she becomes conscious of interests of her village
as a part of the world interests, and would study places and
customs and trade, lead her into the problems of geography.
When knowledge of the development of her own and other nations
will add to the richness of her experience and the comprehension of
present-day movements, direct her into the study of history.

1 The real progress of pupils in subjects has been measured in America, and
some places of China, by the standard tests. Only a very few — perhaps those
in arithmetic, drawing and sewing, are fitted for translation, but tests in various
subjects if such could be made would be very valuable in providing objective
measures of achievement.

Conclusion 89

When she seeks the meanings of world tendencies, of individual
life and the relation of belief and action discuss with her the
interpretations and questions of rehgion and philosophy Give
time for appreciation of sunset and river, melody and beauty.
In all of these essentials of living it is the privilege of the school
to help. But the worth of the school curriculum is not determined
by its precision or completeness of outline, but by its actual con-
tribution to the growth of the child who studies, ^'uch a course
of study prepares for continual as well as for ultimate service.
It calls for a fundamental reorganization of the present curri-
culum based upon experimental investigation of the present needs
of the community, and the life needs of the Chinese schoolgirl.

The womanhood of China to-day faces a new world. Soon,
perhaps in this generation, the age-old duty of clothing her family
will be entirely taken away from her, the burdens of the house-
keeping lightened by modern inventions and the standards of
living raised because of increased incomes. Citizenship, per-
haps enfranchised citizenship, in a republic will bring responsi-
bilities to women as individuals and will push the boundaries of
their thought life far beyond the walls of their villages. Bridges,
electric power plants, mines and railroads will shatter belief in
superstitions and make way for faith. Ethical relationships,
and righteous conduct, emphasized for millenniums but limited to
the family, may be broadened to those altruistic attitudes which
link ambition for self improvement with an unselfish purpose for
service.

To those who have undertaken the task of guiding education
for women in this generation belongs the task of experiment,
measurement and adjustment which will give the new woman,
through contact with life situations, a vision of her possibilities.
Thus may the woman of new China be prepared in knowledge,
skill, and spirit to serve her home, her community, her nation and
the world.

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Chung Hsueh Hsiao Ling (Regulations for Middle Schools).

92 The Education of Girls in China

Chung Hwa Min Kwoa Ti | ^j. } Tze Chiao Yu Tung Chi Tu Piao (Annual

Statistical Reports of the Board of Education). 1912-13.
Ku Chin Tu Shu Chi Cheng (The Encyclopedia).
Kwoa Min Hsueh Hsiao Ling (Regulations for Citizens Schools).
Lu Hsiang. Lieh Nil Chwan (Biographies of Eminent Women).

PERIODICALS

ENGLISH
Catholic Missions.
The Chinese Recorder.
The Chinese Repository.
The Chinese Students' Monthly.
The Educational Review.
The Spirit of Missions.

Women's Missionary Friend (formerly Heathen Women's Friend).
Woman's Work in the Far East.
Woman's Work for Women.

GERMAN

Zeitschaft fur Missions-Wissenschaft.

CHINESE

The Chinese Weekly.

The Chinese Educational Review.

VITA

The author of this dissertation, Ida Belle Lewis, was born at
Blairstown, Iowa, December 15, 1887.

She received her early education in the pubhc schools of Iowa
and in the Academy of Morningside. She was graduated from
Morningside College in 1909 with the degree of Bachelor of Arts.
From 1910-1915 she was instructor in English, history, and geog-
raphy in the Sarah L. Keen Memorial School, Tientsin, China.
She was a student at Teachers College, Columbia University,
from 1915 to 1918, receiving the degree of Master of Arts in
June, 1916.

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